All posts by Julie Gisbon

Lindamood-Bell and Orton-Gillingham | Understanding the Difference

For Schools, Learning Centers, Reading,

 

Families and educators comparing Lindamood-Bell and Orton-Gillingham are often looking for the right approach to support reading and language development, whether for individualized instruction, school-based intervention, or professional development. Both provide explicit, systematic instruction, actively engage students in the learning process, and align with the principles of Structured Literacy. Both also develop foundational reading skills, including phonemic awareness, phonics, decoding, and spelling.

The primary difference lies in instructional emphasis. Orton-Gillingham focuses on Structured Literacy instruction for written language. Along with developing decoding and spelling, it also addresses vocabulary and reading comprehension within language and literacy instruction. Lindamood-Bell also develops these foundational reading skills but places a unique emphasis on developing the sensory-cognitive processes that underlie literacy and learning. Through Seeing Stars®, students explicitly develop symbol imagery, a foundational skill for orthographic mapping, automatic word recognition, spelling, and fluent reading. Through Visualizing and Verbalizing®, students develop concept imagery as a foundation for oral and written language comprehension, memory, and higher-order thinking. Through Lindamood Phoneme Sequencing®, students discover and label the oral-motor movements of phonemes. Students can then verify the identity, number, and sequence of sounds in words. This emphasis on imagery is consistent with decades of cognitive science, including Dual Coding Theory, which demonstrates that language and mental imagery work together to support learning and memory.

 

Sensory-Cognitive Instruction Aligned with Structured Literacy

Lindamood-Bell complements Structured Literacy by addressing the sensory-cognitive processes that help make reading, spelling, and comprehension more automatic and meaningful. For students who continue to struggle despite previous reading instruction, this additional focus can help identify and develop the underlying skills that may be limiting progress.

 

Programs Developed by Lindamood-Bell’s Founders

Lindamood-Bell’s founders developed evidence-based programs that target the sensory-cognitive skills underlying reading, language, and math. Together, these programs develop the foundational learning processes that support literacy, comprehension, and academic success.

Reading and Spelling

Seeing Stars® by Nanci Bell
Develops symbol imagery to strengthen orthographic mapping, automatic word recognition, reading fluency, spelling, phonemic awareness, and orthographic processing.

Lindamood Phoneme Sequencing® (LiPS®) by Patricia Lindamood and Phyllis Lindamood
Develops phonemic awareness through articulatory feedback, helping students perceive, produce, sequence, and manipulate sounds for reading and spelling.

Language Comprehension

Visualizing and Verbalizing® (V/V®) by Nanci Bell
Develops concept imagery as a foundation for oral and written language comprehension, vocabulary, memory, critical thinking, and higher-order thinking.

Talkies® by Nanci Bell and Christy Bonetti
Develops oral language and concept imagery to strengthen vocabulary, sentence structure, expressive language, and comprehension.

Math

On Cloud Nine® by Nanci Bell and Kimberly Tuley
Develops imagery for mathematics to strengthen number sense, mathematical reasoning, problem-solving, and conceptual understanding.

 

Lindamood-Bell and Orton-Gillingham: Key Differences

When comparing Lindamood-Bell and Orton-Gillingham, it is important to recognize that both approaches are explicit and systematic, but they address learning in different ways.

Lindamood-Bell Orton-Gillingham
Primary Focus Develops reading skills and the sensory-cognitive skills that support reading and comprehension. Aligns with a Theory of Cognition. Structured Literacy instruction emphasizing phonemic awareness, phonics, decoding, encoding, and written language structure.
Reading

Instruction

 Integrates phonemic awareness, phonics, symbol imagery, phonological and orthographic processing, fluency, and comprehension. Develops phonemic awareness, phonics, decoding, encoding, and spelling through Structured Literacy instruction.
Comprehension Explicitly develops concept imagery to enable language comprehension and higher-order thinking. Addresses vocabulary and comprehension through language, syntax, semantics, and reading instruction.
Individualization Guided by a Learning Ability Evaluation and ongoing diagnostic teaching. Individualized based on student performance using Orton-Gillingham principles.
Sensory-Cognitive Development Explicitly develops phonemic awareness, symbol imagery, and concept imagery as instructional objectives. Sensory-cognitive processes are not typically identified as separate instructional objectives.

 

What Makes Lindamood-Bell Unique

One way to understand the distinction is to differentiate between what is being taught and how the brain processes it. This distinction is grounded in Dual Coding Theory, which proposes that literacy depends on the interaction of verbal and nonverbal mental representations, rather than on language alone. (Google Books)

As Sadoski and Paivio (2001) explain:

“Cognition in reading and writing consists of the activity of two separate coding systems of mental representation, one system specialized for language (the verbal coding system) and one system specialized for dealing with nonverbal objects and events (the nonverbal coding system).”

Mental representations are the internal forms of information stored in memory, while processing refers to the activation and interaction of those representations during learning, reading, and thinking. (Google Books)

Traditional structured literacy approaches primarily organize instruction around the component skills of reading—phonics, decoding, spelling, vocabulary, morphology, syntax, and comprehension. Lindamood-Bell teaches these same reading components while also directly developing three sensory-cognitive processes that support skilled reading:

  • Phoneme awareness – perceiving and manipulating the identity, number, and order of sounds
  • Symbol imagery – creating stable mental representations of sounds, letters, and spelling patterns to support orthographic processing and automatic word recognition
  • Concept imagery – creating mental representations for language to support vocabulary, comprehension, reasoning, memory, and critical thinking (Lindamood-Bell)

Examples

Below are examples of content-focused instruction (OG-based) and process-focused instruction (Lindamood-Bell sensory-cognitive based).

Vocabulary Instruction

Content-focused instruction

  • Learn the definition.
  • Use the word in a sentence.
  • Practice the word in conversation.
  • Review multiple exposures to strengthen retention.

Process-focused instruction

  • Create a mental image representing the meaning of the word.
  • Describe and expand the image with sensory detail.
  • Draw or sketch the image.
  • Use the image to generate sentences, compare concepts, infer meaning, and improve recall.

The instructional goal extends beyond learning the definition to strengthening concept imagery as a basis for vocabulary, memory, and comprehension.

Word Reading

Content-focused instruction

  • Learn syllable types.
  • Apply phonics rules.
  • Decode unfamiliar words.
  • Practice spelling patterns and word families.

Process-focused instruction

  • Develop symbol imagery for sounds and letters.
  • Visualize the sequence of letters within words.
  • Manipulate phonemes and graphemes mentally (e.g., “Change the a in plant to i. What word do you picture now?”)
  • Store stable orthographic representations that support rapid, automatic word recognition rather than relying on repeated analytical decoding.

Here, phonics instruction is integrated with explicit development of the mental representations that support orthographic mapping and fluent reading. (Lindamood-Bell)

Reading Comprehension

Content-focused instruction

  • Identify the main idea.
  • Answer literal and inferential questions.
  • Learn comprehension strategies such as summarizing, predicting, and questioning.

Process-focused instruction

  • Create detailed mental imagery while reading.
  • Integrate individual images into an “imaged gestalt” of the entire passage.
  • Use imagery to support inference, recall, sequencing, problem solving, and critical thinking.

Rather than treating visualization as a reading strategy, concept imagery becomes the cognitive foundation upon which comprehension is built. (Lindamood-Bell)

Why This Distinction Matters

For many students, explicit instruction in phonics and other reading components is sufficient. Others continue to struggle because weaknesses in phoneme awareness, symbol imagery, or concept imagery interfere with how they store, retrieve, and integrate information during reading.

Lindamood-Bell’s diagnostic approach identifies which sensory-cognitive processes and academic skills are limiting performance. Instruction is then individualized and continuously adjusted, so each student receives the emphasis most likely to improve reading, spelling, comprehension, and confidence.

 

For Parents: Getting Started with Lindamood-Bell Instruction

If your child continues to struggle with reading, comprehension, or learning despite previous instruction, it can be difficult to know what to try next. At Lindamood-Bell, the first step is understanding why your child is struggling.

A comprehensive Learning Ability Evaluation goes beyond measuring academic performance to identify the sensory-cognitive skills that support reading, spelling, language comprehension, and learning. The evaluation examines areas such as phonemic awareness, word recognition, reading fluency, spelling, oral language comprehension, and reading comprehension to provide a clear picture of your child’s strengths and learning needs.

Using these results, our team develops an individualized learning plan focused on the skills that will have the greatest impact on your child’s progress. Instruction is available in person at Lindamood-Bell Learning Centers and through live online instruction. Throughout the process, families receive regular updates, and instruction is continuously adjusted as new skills develop and learning accelerates.

If you’re ready to learn more about your child’s learning profile, contact your nearest Lindamood-Bell Learning Center or schedule a Learning Ability Evaluation (slide-out form). Together, we can determine the instruction that best supports your child’s path to stronger reading, comprehension, and lifelong learning.

 

For Educators: Partnering with Lindamood-Bell

Since 1986, Lindamood-Bell has partnered with educators, schools, and districts to improve student outcomes through evidence-based instruction, professional development, and customized school partnerships. Whether you’re looking to strengthen classroom instruction, provide intensive intervention, or build schoolwide capacity, Lindamood-Bell offers flexible solutions tailored to your goals.

Professional development workshops prepare educators, speech-language pathologists, and intervention specialists to implement the founders’ programs, including Seeing Stars®, Visualizing and Verbalizing®, Talkies®, LiPS®, and On Cloud Nine® math. Through hands-on learning, demonstrations, guided practice, and implementation support, participants gain practical strategies for developing the sensory-cognitive skills that support reading, language, and math. Schools and districts can also receive customized coaching, consultation, in-service training, and job-embedded professional learning.

For schools seeking additional intervention, the Learning Center on Campus model brings Lindamood-Bell instructional staff directly to the school site, allowing students to receive intensive one-to-one instruction during the school day while remaining part of their school community. This partnership provides direct student services while giving educators the opportunity to observe instruction and deepen their understanding of sensory-cognitive learning.

Explore our professional development workshops and school partnership options, or call 800-233-1819 to speak with a program expert about how Lindamood-Bell can support your educators, students, and school community.

 

Frequently Asked Questions

What is the difference between Lindamood-Bell and Orton-Gillingham?

Lindamood-Bell’s approach has similarities to Orton-Gillingham, such as explicit, systematic, multisensory instruction in the component parts of reading—phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension. Our approach differs in its focus on the underlying sensory-cognitive processes of symbol imagery and concept imagery. These skills may be an important missing piece for some students who continue to struggle despite receiving high-quality reading instruction. 

 

Does Lindamood-Bell include phonics instruction?

Yes. Like Orton-Gillingham, Lindamood-Bell includes explicit instruction in phonemic awareness and phonics as part of a comprehensive approach to developing reading and spelling. Lindamood-Bell also develops the sensory-cognitive processes that support orthographic processing, fluent reading, and language comprehension.

 

Is Lindamood-Bell effective for students with dyslexia?

Yes. Lindamood-Bell instruction helps many students with dyslexia as well as other students who struggle with reading. Instruction is individualized to address each student’s specific learning needs by developing the sensory-cognitive skills that support reading, spelling, and language comprehension.

Research supports this individualized approach. In a groundbreaking study published in Nature Communications, researchers at Stanford University found that Lindamood-Bell reading intervention significantly improved reading skills in children with dyslexia while also strengthening the brain networks that support reading. These findings provide evidence that instruction targeting the underlying learning processes can improve reading while strengthening the neural systems involved in reading.

 

Can Lindamood-Bell be used alongside Orton-Gillingham?

Yes. Many students who continue to struggle with reading after receiving Orton-Gillingham or other reading instruction benefit from instruction that develops the underlying sensory-cognitive skills affecting reading. For example, Seeing Stars® explicitly develops symbol imagery, a foundational skill for orthographic mapping, automatic word recognition, spelling, and reading fluency.

Separately, some students struggle primarily with language comprehension, memory, or higher-order thinking due to weak concept imagery. Visualizing and Verbalizing® explicitly develops concept imagery to strengthen comprehension, critical thinking, and learning from language. This instruction can benefit students whether or not they have previously received Orton-Gillingham or other reading intervention.

 

How can families determine what instruction their child needs?

Every student has a unique learning profile. A comprehensive assessment can identify the underlying skills affecting reading, comprehension, and learning. Lindamood-Bell’s Learning Ability Evaluation identifies sensory-cognitive strengths and weaknesses and provides individualized instructional recommendations based on each student’s needs.

 

Is Lindamood-Bell instruction available online?

Yes. Lindamood-Bell’s live online instruction mirrors the individualized instruction provided in our Learning Centers, making the same evidence-based instruction available to students wherever they live.

 

Why Families and Educators Choose Lindamood-Bell

Whether you’re a parent seeking answers for a child who continues to struggle with reading or an educator looking to strengthen literacy instruction and student outcomes, Lindamood-Bell offers individualized solutions backed by decades of experience and research.

Wherever you are in your journey, Lindamood-Bell is committed to helping students develop the skills that make learning possible.

Get in Touch to learn more.

Lindamood-Bell Names San Luis Obispo Learning Center as Flagship Location; Announces Emily Hoffman as Director

* Press Releases, Learning Centers

For more than 40 years, Lindamood-Bell’s San Luis Obispo Learning Center has been at the heart of the organization’s mission to change lives through learning. As Lindamood-Bell’s first Learning Center and home to its corporate headquarters, it has now been designated as the organization’s official Flagship Learning Center. The company also announced the appointment of Emily Hoffman as Flagship Learning Center Director.

The Flagship designation recognizes the San Luis Obispo Learning Center’s role as a hub for innovation, educator training, and instructional excellence across Lindamood-Bell’s 46 locations nationwide. While every Lindamood-Bell Learning Center is committed to helping students achieve meaningful learning gains, the Flagship Center will serve as a place where new ideas are developed, best practices are refined, and educator training strengthens instruction across the organization.

Emily Hoffman brings 30 years of Lindamood-Bell experience to her new role. She has served in several leadership positions, including Learning Center Director and, most recently, Director of Lindamood-Bell Academy.

“There is something incredibly meaningful about leading the Flagship Center in San Luis Obispo, where Lindamood-Bell began,” said Hoffman. “This center represents both our history and our future. I’m honored to support our local families while also helping strengthen innovation, collaboration, and excellence across all of our locations.”

“Emily’s depth of experience and commitment to students make her uniquely qualified to lead our Flagship Learning Center,” said Alison Bell, Executive Vice President. “San Luis Obispo has always held a special place in our organization, and under Emily’s leadership, it will continue to serve as a model of excellence and growth.”

The designation was celebrated during a special event at Lindamood-Bell’s San Luis Obispo headquarters, which also marked the organization’s 40th anniversary. Co-founder and CEO Nanci Bell reflected on Lindamood-Bell’s history and vision for the future, Emily Hoffman welcomed guests into the Learning Center, and the San Luis Obispo Chamber of Commerce hosted an official ribbon-cutting ceremony.

Watch KSBY’s coverage of this milestone.

As Lindamood-Bell’s Flagship Learning Center, the San Luis Obispo location will continue providing individualized instruction for students while serving as a national center for educator training, instructional collaboration, and innovation.

To learn more about the San Luis Obispo Learning Center or schedule a Learning Ability Evaluation, please visit our San Luis Obispo Learning Center page.

A Reading Program That Works for Struggling Readers

Learning Centers, Learning Difficulties, Reading, , , ,

reading program for struggling readers

 

Reading is a foundational skill that not only shapes academic achievement but also a student’s confidence and self-esteem. At Lindamood-Bell, we believe that all individuals can learn to read and comprehend to their potential. Our instruction for struggling readers is based on programs authored by our founders. It offers a personalized, evidence-based approach that ensures every student receives the focused attention they need to succeed. By identifying and addressing the underlying causes of reading difficulties, our instruction helps build essential skills and enables students to discover the joy of learning. Learn how our approach can transform struggling readers into confident, independent learners.

 

Understanding Struggling Readers

understanding reading struggles

Students who struggle with reading may exhibit signs such as poor phonemic awareness, difficulty decoding words, and poor fluency. These challenges often lead to frustration and reduced confidence in the classroom. Without the right support, reading difficulties can affect academic performance across all subjects and hinder a child’s willingness to engage.

Another common issue is difficulty remembering sight words or spelling words correctly. Some students may spell phonetically and sound out words accurately, yet struggle to recognize those same words moments later in connected text. This is often the result of weak symbol imagery—the ability to visualize letters and sounds within words.

Symbol imagery is critical for orthographic awareness, which is recognizing and remembering the visual patterns of words. Students with weak symbol imagery often:

  • Struggle to memorize sight words
  • Have trouble with orthographic (visual) spelling
  • Sound out words accurately, but fail to recognize them later
  • Show inconsistent fluency and slow self-correction
  • Experience difficulty in contextual reading

At Lindamood-Bell, we specialize in delivering individualized instruction using evidence-based reading programs for struggling readers developed by our founders. Our approach is designed to strengthen the sensory-cognitive skills that underlie reading, including symbol imagery, to support lasting success.

 

How Our Instruction for Struggling Readers Works

instruction and tutoring for reading struggles

At Lindamood-Bell, we understand that struggling readers need more than extra practice. They need evidence-based instruction tailored to their unique needs. Our instruction is grounded in a deep understanding of the sensory-cognitive processes that underlie reading. Using programs developed by our founders, we provide engaging instruction that develops foundational reading skills such as phonemic awareness and symbol imagery.

Each student begins with a comprehensive learning ability evaluation to determine their strengths and specific areas for growth. Based on the results, we create an individualized learning plan that targets the skills most in need of development. This highly personalized approach ensures that students gain meaningful progress with each instructional session.

Sessions are interactive and engaging, designed to make learning both effective and enjoyable. Through one-to-one instruction, students stay motivated while building the confidence needed to take on academic challenges.

 

Success Stories: Transforming Struggling Readers

help for struggling readers

Over the years, we’ve helped thousands of students find success through instruction based on the reading programs developed by our founders. We’re proud to share stories from families who have seen remarkable growth in their children’s reading abilities and enthusiasm for learning.

One such student is Alyssa, who was falling behind in reading and struggling in school. After receiving personalized instruction at Lindamood-Bell, Alyssa gained the tools and confidence to thrive.

Watch Alyssa’s story:

 

Many parents share their stories of how Lindamood-Bell instruction has helped their children become more engaged in school, more independent, and excited about reading, often for the first time. The impact goes far beyond academics—it helps spark a lifelong love of learning.

 

Why Our Approach to Reading Instruction Works for Struggling Readers

reading instruction and support for struggling readers

At Lindamood-Bell, our instruction is guided by decades of research and real-world results. The reading programs developed by our founders target the sensory-cognitive skills most essential for learning to read. One key component of our instruction is the Seeing Stars® program, developed by Lindamood-Bell co-founder Nanci Bell.

Seeing Stars develops symbol imagery—the ability to visualize sounds and letters in words—as a basis for:

  • Orthographic awareness
  • Phonemic awareness
  • Word attack and recognition
  • Spelling
  • Contextual reading fluency

Symbol imagery is vital to developing the automaticity and fluency that confident readers rely on. Even students with strong phonemic awareness can struggle to establish a reliable bank of sight words or read fluently in context if symbol imagery is weak. Fortunately, symbol imagery can be assessed and developed with the right instruction.

Instruction is provided one-to-one and customized to each student’s pace and learning profile. Whether in person at a Learning Center or online, students receive the same high-quality experience, making our approach effective and accessible for busy families.

Choosing Lindamood-Bell means joining a supportive, collaborative community. We work closely with families, offering regular updates, strategy sessions, and expert guidance to help support learning at home. Our team is committed to student success and to providing encouragement at every step of the journey.

 

Getting Started with a Reading Program for Struggling Readers

reading program for reading problems

Getting started is simple: call us at 800-300-1818 or contact us online. We’ll discuss solutions for your child’s specific reading difficulties and explain how our instruction can help build the skills they need to succeed. Our learning experts are ready to help answer your questions. Get in touch today! 

Next, we conduct a thorough evaluation to identify your child’s learning strengths and needs. Based on this assessment, we design a customized instruction plan that targets the areas where your child needs the most support. You’ll receive a detailed summary of our findings and recommendations for the next steps.

To support families everywhere, we offer live, one-to-one online instruction. Our virtual students make gains comparable to those attending in person, and the flexible format fits easily into busy schedules.

At Lindamood-Bell, we’re passionate about helping every student succeed. Our instruction empowers students with the skills and confidence they need to thrive in school and beyond.

Start your journey with us today and watch your child thrive!

Get in touch or contact your local learning center today! 

Dyslexia Causes and Interventions | Explore the Facts and Find Support

Dyslexia, Learning Difficulties, Reading, , ,

Understanding the causes of dyslexia helps parents and educators make informed decisions about effective, evidence-based support. 

 

What Is Dyslexia?

what is dyslexia

Dyslexia is a specific learning disability characterized by difficulties in word reading and/or spelling that involve accuracy, speed, or both and vary depending on the orthography of the English language. These difficulties occur along a continuum of severity and may persist even with instruction that is effective for the individual’s peers. The causes of dyslexia are complex and involve combinations of genetic, neurobiological, and environmental influences that interact throughout development. Underlying difficulties with phonological, orthographic, and morphological processing are common but not universal, and early oral language weaknesses often foreshadow literacy challenges. Secondary consequences include reading comprehension problems and reduced reading and writing experience, which can impede growth in language, knowledge, written expression, and overall academic achievement. Psychological well-being and employment opportunities also may be affected. Although identification and targeted instruction are important at any age, language and literacy support before and during the early years of education is particularly effective. Targeted instruction beyond the early years of education, when diagnostically driven and delivered intensively, can lead to remediation of dyslexia. 

 

What Are the Possible Causes of Dyslexia?

 

The Brain’s Reading Network

Understanding what causes dyslexia begins with understanding the brain’s reading network. Reading relies on interconnected regions in the left hemisphere that support the processing of the sounds of the phonemes in the English language, coupled with the symbols/letters representing those sounds, and their relationships to words. Difficulties grounded in these brain-based regions negatively affect word recognition. In dyslexia, these neurological systems do not activate as efficiently, and the connections among them differ from those of typical readers. These differences are present early in development and are not the result of low intelligence. Causation is complex. Beyond genetic factors, the lack of evidence-based developmental instruction in appropriate educational environments that address the necessary brain processes may contribute to a diagnosis of dyslexia.

Specifically, from what is termed as a sensory-cognitive perspective, instructionally stimulating and systematically addressing the combination of phonological and orthographic processing (sounds and letter symbols) as applied to words plays a central role in learning to read. When the brain has difficulty precisely perceiving, segmenting, and manipulating speech sounds in combination with letters, it may struggle to build stable connections as applied to decoding (reading) and encoding (spelling). 

The encouraging news is that research indicates that, with effective, structured sensory-cognitive instruction that directly targets these underlying processes, neural pathways connecting the auditory, visual, and language systems can and will become more efficient over time, with the right instruction over the necessary amount of time. Research from the Universities of Georgetown, the University of Washington, MIT and Stanford has shown that targeted reading intervention can support measurable changes in the brain’s reading circuitry alongside behavioral improvements in reading skills. Learn more in the article, Teachers are Brain Engineers, from the University of Washington.

 

Genetic and Hereditary Factors of Dyslexia 

As inferred from above, genetic influences are associated with reading development, though no single gene causes dyslexia. Instead, multiple genetic factors contribute to the development of the networks involved with all processes associated with learning to read.

Because these influences are complex, two individuals with similar family histories may have very different learning profiles. What remains consistent is that early identification and instruction that directly strengthen foundational reading skills can significantly improve outcomes.

 

Environmental Influences on Dyslexia

Environmental factors can significantly contribute to the diagnosis of dyslexia, influencing how early reading challenges are addressed if children do not receive effective, scientifically validated instructional support. From a sensory-cognitive perspective, in addition to early rich print exposure, specific diagnostic assessments play an important role in helping educators identify students who may need additional support.

When concerns are recognized early and timely, with the right kind of explicit instruction that directly develops underlying sensory-cognitive reading skills, stronger outcomes can be realized. High-quality early, scientifically based differential diagnosis and literacy instruction in preschool, kindergarten, and the primary grades can help identify difficulties sooner and provide students with targeted support before reading struggles become more significant. Not addressing these factors will affect whether students are identified and supported, determining the odds of a diagnosis of dyslexia.

When instruction does not explicitly target the necessary underlying sensory-cognitive skills, students may continue to struggle despite exposure and effort. In contrast, instruction that directly develops these foundational systems can lead to meaningful, measurable growth in reading and comprehension. Dyslexia occurs across all socioeconomic backgrounds, languages, and learning environments.

  

Myths and Misconceptions About Dyslexia

Myth:  Dyslexia is associated with low intelligence.
Fact:  Individuals with dyslexia have a wide range of intellectual abilities, often average to above average. Dyslexia affects reading efficiency, not thinking or learning capacity.

Myth:  Dyslexia is caused by a phonological processing weakness.
Fact: While Phonological processing is a factor, there is more to it. The ability to process the orthographic structure (number, order, and sequence of letters in words) of English is equally at play in learning to read.

Myth: Students will outgrow dyslexia without help.
 Fact: While individuals may develop coping strategies, dyslexia reflects underlying language-processing differences that benefit from explicit, structured instruction targeting foundational reading skills.

Myth: Dyslexia is lifelong and cannot be helped.
 Fact: Research shows that appropriate intensive instruction can lead to significant improvement in reading and spelling for students with dyslexia. Early, intensive, and explicit instruction that develops underlying sensory-cognitive and language-processing skills is associated with stronger outcomes.

Myth: Accommodations are the primary way to help someone with dyslexia.
 Fact: Accommodations such as extra time or audiobooks can improve access to grade-level content, but they do not directly develop the underlying reading skills needed for long-term independence. Students with dyslexia benefit most from explicit, systematic instruction that directly targets foundational sensory-cognitive skills, including phonological awareness and symbol imagery – the ability to create mental representations for letters and words. Strengthening these skills supports accurate word recognition and reading fluency over time.

 

How Dyslexia Is Identified

how to identify dyslexia

Early signs can appear before formal reading instruction, including difficulty with rhyming, recognizing and manipulating sounds, and learning letter names and sounds. These early indicators reflect developing phonological awareness skills.

As reading begins, consistent struggles with decoding, slow and effortful reading, and persistent spelling difficulties may indicate a need for evaluation.

A comprehensive assessment typically includes measures of phonological awareness, letter-sound knowledge, decoding, word reading, fluency, spelling, and language comprehension. These results help identify specific sensory-cognitive strengths and weaknesses and guide instruction that targets the underlying skills involved in what causes dyslexia.

 

Support for Dyslexia at Lindamood-Bell

support for dyslexia

At Lindamood-Bell, we help families attain real, measurable progress by focusing on the sensory-cognitive foundations of reading. Our instruction targets the underlying causes of reading weaknesses, including phonological processing and symbol imagery (orthographic processing) —the ability to create mental representations for sounds and letters—which supports accurate decoding and fluent reading.

We provide individualized, intensive instruction that strengthens the cognitive skills necessary for reading, including:

  • Phonological awareness and symbol imagery
  • Decoding and word recognition
  • Spelling and written language
  • Reading fluency and comprehension

We begin with a comprehensive Learning Ability Evaluation to identify each learner’s strengths and needs, then create a personalized instruction plan with clear goals and frequent progress checks. Families partner with our team to support sustained growth over time. Independent research and outcome data, including studies showing changes in brain pathways alongside gains in reading skills, position Lindamood-Bell as a trusted leader in literacy instruction.

For nearly four decades, Lindamood-Bell has worked with tens of thousands of individuals. Our success is grounded in our sensory-cognitive approach to instruction, which directly targets the skills underlying reading development.

The Seeing Stars® program develops symbol imagery, the ability to visualize letters in words. This skill supports decoding unfamiliar words, recognizing sight words, spelling, and fluent reading in context. See the progress results that students with dyslexia made after Lindamood-Bell instruction:

Students with a Prior Dyslexia Diagnosis Who Received Decoding Instruction Only

Lindamood-Bell Instruction Implemented: Seeing Stars

Years: Jan. 2008 – Dec. 2024

Number of Students: 3,605

Average Age: 10.2

Average Instruction Hours: 125.8

 

Take the Next Step

cause of dyslexia

If you’re wondering how to support your child’s reading growth, we can help you move forward with clarity and confidence. For nearly forty years, Lindamood-Bell has partnered with families to transform reading and comprehension through instruction that targets the underlying causes of reading difficulty and builds strong, independent learners. Schedule a Learning Ability Evaluation to gain a clear understanding of your child’s strengths and needs and take the next step toward meaningful progress.

What Is Phoneme Awareness? A Guide for Parents and Educators

Learning Difficulties, Reading, ,

what is phonemic awareness

 

Phoneme awareness is an important component of reading and language development, but it is not reading itself. To understand phoneme awareness, it is helpful to first understand how reading works.

Reading is an integration of multiple processing skills, including word attack, sight word recognition, contextual reading fluency, oral vocabulary, and comprehension. Successful reading requires more than decoding words accurately. Readers must also create meaning from language, monitor their own understanding, and self-correct when something does not make sense.

At Lindamood-Bell, we view reading and comprehension as cognitive acts that depend on underlying sensory-cognitive functions. Three sensory-cognitive functions underlie reading and comprehension:

Phoneme Awareness (PA) is the ability to perceive the identity, number, and sequence of sounds within words.

Symbol Imagery (SI) is the ability to create mental images for sounds and letters within words.

Concept Imagery (CI) is the ability to create an imaged gestalt, or whole, for oral and written language.

While individuals may differ in their abilities, the processes necessary for reading are not different. When one or more of these sensory-cognitive functions is weak or inefficient, reading and comprehension can become difficult. The encouraging news is that sensory-cognitive functions can be developed, changing an individual’s ability to read, comprehend, and learn.

Reading is a cognitive process consisting of language and imagery. Readers use sensory input to monitor accuracy, self-correct errors, and construct meaning from text. Effective instruction must therefore align with how cognition works if it is to produce meaningful and lasting changes in reading and comprehension.

 

What Is Phoneme Awareness?

definition of phonemic awareness

Phoneme awareness is the ability to perceive the identity, number, and sequence of sounds within words.

For example, a student with strong phoneme awareness can recognize that the word cat contains three sounds: /k/, /a/, and /t/. The student can identify individual sounds, blend sounds together to form words, segment words into sounds, and manipulate sounds to create new words.

Phoneme awareness involves attending to spoken language and recognizing the sound structure of words. It is often discussed as part of phonological awareness, a broader term that includes awareness of larger units of sound such as words, syllables, and rhymes.

 

Why Phoneme Awareness Matters

phonemic awareness skills

Phoneme awareness contributes to accurate word identification, spelling, and language processing by enabling individuals to perceive the identity, number, and sequence of sounds within words.

When phoneme awareness is well developed, students are better able to notice when sounds are added, omitted, substituted, or rearranged within words. This ability helps them monitor their own responses, recognize errors, and make corrections while reading and spelling.

Weak phoneme awareness can contribute to difficulties with:

  • Recognizing the sameness and difference of sounds
  • Discriminating the identity, number, and sequence of sounds within words
  • Blending sounds into words
  • Word attack
  • Spelling
  • Self-correcting reading errors

Research and instructional experience have demonstrated that phoneme awareness can be developed and applied to literacy skills. As students strengthen their awareness of sounds within words, they often become more accurate and confident readers and spellers.

At the same time, phoneme awareness alone does not fully explain skilled reading. Students may develop strong phoneme awareness and word attack skills yet continue to struggle with automatic word recognition, contextual reading fluency, or comprehension. For this reason, Lindamood-Bell views phoneme awareness as one of several sensory-cognitive functions that contribute to successful reading and learning.

 

Developing the Sensory-Cognitive Functions for Reading

phonemic awareness and reading

Lindamood-Bell uses programs that develop the sensory-cognitive functions that underlie reading and comprehension.

Seeing Stars® Program, Symbol Imagery for Phonological and Orthographic Processing in Reading and Spelling (SI)

The Seeing Stars® Program, by Nanci Bell, develops symbol imagery, the ability to visualize sounds and letters in words, as a basis for orthographic awareness, phoneme awareness, word attack, word recognition, spelling, and contextual reading fluency.

As students develop the ability to image letters and letter patterns, they strengthen their awareness of the sounds within words and improve their ability to identify, decode, spell, and recognize words automatically.

 

Lindamood Phoneme Sequencing® Program for Reading, Spelling, and Speech (LiPS®)

Some students require more basic and more extensive work to develop phoneme awareness.

The LiPS® Program, by Patricia Lindamood and Phyllis Lindamood, teaches students to discover and label the oral-motor movements of phonemes. Using oral-motor, visual, and auditory feedback, students learn to verify the identity, number, and sequence of sounds within words. LiPS® may be appropriate for students who need more direct and extensive phoneme awareness instruction.

 

Visualizing and Verbalizing® for Language Comprehension and Thinking (V/V®)

The V/V® Program, by Nanci Bell, develops concept imagery, the ability to create an imagined or imaged gestalt from language, as a basis for comprehension and higher-order thinking. The development of concept imagery supports reading and listening comprehension, memory, oral vocabulary, critical thinking, and writing.

 

Signs a Student May Need Support

support for phonemic awareness

Students with weaknesses in phoneme awareness may:

  • Have difficulty perceiving or manipulating sounds within words
  • Add, omit, substitute, or reverse sounds when reading or spelling
  • Struggle with word attack and spelling
  • Rely on guessing rather than accurate word identification

Reading difficulties may also result from weaknesses in symbol imagery or concept imagery. Students who struggle with word attack, spelling, or contextual reading fluency may benefit from developing symbol imagery. Students who struggle with vocabulary, language comprehension, or creating meaning from text may benefit from the development of concept imagery.

When a student struggles with reading, it is important to look beyond academic performance and consider the sensory-cognitive processes that underlie learning. A Learning Ability Evaluation can help identify strengths and weaknesses and provide valuable information for developing an effective instructional plan.

 

Lindamood-Bell Instruction

improve phonemic awareness

Traditional reading and tutoring programs often focus on practice, content, reading strategies, or spelling rules. While these approaches may address academic performance, they do not always develop the sensory-cognitive functions necessary for reading and comprehension.

Lindamood-Bell is different.

Our instruction is designed to develop the sensory-cognitive processes that underlie reading, spelling, language comprehension, and critical thinking. Depending on an individual’s learning needs, instruction may focus on developing one or more of the sensory-cognitive functions that support learning.

Instruction is personalized, intensive, and responsive to student performance. Through one-to-one or small-group instruction, delivered in person or live-online, students develop the underlying processes necessary for reading, spelling, comprehension, and learning.

Lindamood-Bell Instruction begins with a Learning Ability Evaluation that identifies strengths and areas of need. Using this information, we create an individualized learning plan designed to develop the sensory-cognitive functions that support learning and academic success.

Across thousands of students, Lindamood-Bell has documented gains in reading, spelling, language comprehension, and critical thinking. Our goal is to help students become accurate, fluent, and confident learners.

 

Training for Educators

how to teach phonemic awareness

Lindamood-Bell partners with schools and districts to help educators understand and develop the sensory-cognitive processes that underlie reading, comprehension, and learning. Our approach, grounded in the cognitive science of learning, aligns with the science of reading and structured literacy.

Through professional learning, educators learn how sensory-cognitive functions such as Phoneme Awareness, Symbol Imagery, and Concept Imagery contribute to reading, spelling, language comprehension, and academic success.

Lindamood-Bell for Schools offers workshops, coaching, and comprehensive school partnerships, available live online and in person. Individual educators can enroll in workshops to deepen their instructional knowledge, while schools and districts can engage in coaching and partnership opportunities designed to support implementation and student achievement.

Teachers, specialists, interventionists, administrators, and school teams gain practical strategies they can apply immediately while deepening their understanding of the processes that support literacy and learning.

 

 

Frequently Asked Questions

What is the difference between phoneme awareness and phonics?

Phoneme awareness is the ability to perceive and manipulate the sounds within spoken words. Phonics involves instruction in the relationship between sounds and letters.

How can I tell if a child needs help with phoneme awareness?

Students with weak phoneme awareness may have difficulty identifying sounds within words, blending sounds, spelling accurately, or discriminating between similar sounds.

Does phoneme awareness affect reading comprehension?

Phoneme awareness supports accurate word identification and spelling. However, skilled reading also depends on symbol imagery and concept imagery. Students may develop strong phoneme awareness yet continue to struggle with automatic word recognition, contextual reading fluency, or comprehension. Independent reading and comprehension require the integration of multiple sensory-cognitive functions.

How does Lindamood-Bell help with reading?

Depending on an individual’s learning needs, instruction may focus on developing one or more of the sensory-cognitive functions that underlie reading and comprehension:

  • Seeing Stars® develops Symbol Imagery, the ability to visualize sounds and letters within words.
  • Visualizing and Verbalizing® develops Concept Imagery, the ability to create a gestalt for oral and written language.
  • LiPS® provides more basic and extensive development of phoneme awareness for students who may benefit from oral-motor kinesthetic feedback.

One or more of these programs may be used to address an individual’s specific learning needs.

 

 

Support for Dyslexia and Other Reading Disorders

Dyslexia, Learning Difficulties, Reading, , ,

 

 

Understanding the Signs of Reading Disorders and Finding Effective Help

support for dyslexia and reading disorders

If your child is struggling with reading, you’re not alone, and early support can make all the difference. It’s common for parents to wonder whether their child is just taking longer to catch on, or if something deeper, like dyslexia or another reading disorder, might be at play. At Lindamood-Bell, we specialize in identifying and addressing the root causes of reading difficulties. Our evidence-based instruction helps individuals of all ages and skill levels build the essential foundation for reading success and lasting confidence.

 

What Is Dyslexia?

find support for dyslexia and reading disorders

Dyslexia is a language-based learning difficulty that affects how the brain processes written and spoken words. Children with dyslexia may have trouble sounding out words, recognizing familiar words automatically, or spelling accurately. These challenges can make reading feel slow, effortful, and frustrating, especially when they impact fluency and comprehension. Importantly, dyslexia is not a reflection of a child’s intelligence or effort. With the right support and targeted instruction, students with dyslexia can become confident, capable readers and spellers.

 

Signs of Dyslexia

sings of dyslexia and reading disorders

Some of the most common signs that may indicate dyslexia include:

Difficulty with Sounding Out Words and Recognizing Sight Words

Students with dyslexia often have trouble breaking words into individual sounds (phonemes). They might misread words by skipping or substituting letters, for example, reading “steam” instead of “stream.”
They may also struggle to recognize sight words like “eye” or “thought,” which must be memorized and don’t follow typical phonetic rules.

Struggles with Reading Fluency

A student might be able to sound out words correctly but still read slowly or with frequent stops. When reading doesn’t flow smoothly, it becomes harder to understand the overall meaning of a sentence or story.

Ongoing Spelling Challenges

Spelling can be a lasting struggle for children with reading difficulties. They might spell words the way they sound but have trouble remembering the correct spelling, especially for words that don’t follow typical rules.

If these signs sound familiar, it may be time to take a closer look. The sooner you identify the issue and get the right support, the sooner your child can start gaining confidence and skills that will last a lifetime. Explore results from students diagnosed with dyslexia who received Seeing Stars® instruction at our Learning Centers.

 

Understanding Other Reading Disorders

understanding reading disorders

While dyslexia is one of the most widely recognized reading disorders, it’s not the only one. Other challenges can affect a child’s ability to read effectively, and Lindamood-Bell programs are designed to support a range of learning needs.

Reading Comprehension Difficulties

Some children can read words accurately but still have difficulty understanding what they’ve read. This challenge often stems from weak concept imagery—the ability to create mental pictures from language. Without this imagery, it’s difficult to follow the meaning of sentences, grasp main ideas, and retain important details.

The Visualizing and Verbalizing® program develops this essential skill, helping students build the mental imagery needed for strong comprehension. As concept imagery improves, students can better understand and remember what they read or hear, make inferences, and think critically.

Want to see what’s possible? Explore results from students who received Visualizing and Verbalizing instruction at our Learning Centers.

Central Auditory Processing Disorder (CAPD)

CAPD affects how the brain processes auditory information, making it difficult for a child to distinguish and manipulate sounds, skills that are foundational to reading. This can lead to struggles with phonemic awareness, decoding, and fluency.

At Lindamood-Bell, we address reading challenges like these through intensive, one-to-one instruction that develops the sensory-cognitive skills essential for reading success. The Seeing Stars® program helps students with CAPD strengthen their ability to perceive sounds, decode words, and become more accurate and fluent readers.

Many students diagnosed with CAPD have made significant gains through our approach—see their progress here.

Dysgraphia

Dysgraphia is a learning challenge that primarily affects writing, but it often overlaps with reading difficulties. Children with dysgraphia may have trouble with spelling, organizing their thoughts on paper, using proper grammar or punctuation, or maintaining legible handwriting. These difficulties can make written expression frustrating and time-consuming, and they may affect performance across multiple subjects.

At Lindamood-Bell, we address these interconnected challenges with a comprehensive approach. Our reading instruction—using the Seeing Stars® program for decoding and spelling and the Visualizing and Verbalizing® program for comprehension—helps strengthen the underlying sensory-cognitive skills that are essential for reading and writing success. For example, students who struggle with organizing their thoughts in writing often benefit from Visualizing and Verbalizing, which develops concept imagery and helps them clarify and sequence ideas more effectively.

In addition, our Academic Prep program offers targeted support for students looking to improve higher-level skills such as writing, organization, study skills, and test preparation strategies. With one-to-one instruction and customized goals, students build confidence in their writing and executive functioning abilities, gaining tools they can use in school and beyond.

 

No matter what type of reading or learning difficulty your child is facing—whether it’s dyslexia, a reading comprehension challenge, CAPD, dysgraphia, or another reading disorder—Lindamood-Bell is here to help. Our evidence-based, individualized instruction targets the root causes of reading struggles, helping students gain the skills they need to succeed. With the right support, every child can become a confident, independent learner. If you’ve noticed signs of a reading disorder, don’t wait. Early action can make all the difference. Contact us to learn how we can support your child’s learning journey.

 

What Makes Lindamood-Bell Different in Supporting Dyslexia and Other Reading Disorders

instruction for reading disorders

At Lindamood-Bell, we go beyond traditional tutoring to provide evidence-based, individualized instruction that addresses the root causes of reading difficulties. Our founders’ programs are backed by decades of research, clinical experience, and proven results with students of all ages and ability levels.

Reading is a complex process that depends on the integration of multiple skills—word decoding, sight word recognition, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension. Rather than relying solely on repetition or strategies, our approach develops the underlying sensory-cognitive functions necessary for lasting growth in reading and understanding. These include:

  • Phoneme awareness: the ability to auditorily perceive sounds within words
  • Symbol imagery: the ability to create mental imagery for letters and sounds in words
  • Concept imagery: the ability to create mental representations for the whole; it is dynamic imagery of actions, scenes, movement, and more.

At our Learning Centers, we provide Seeing Stars® and Visualizing and Verbalizing® instruction in a one-to-one environment that’s personalized, encouraging, and designed to meet each learner’s unique needs. Whether a student struggles with reading accuracy, fluency, comprehension, or all three, no matter the degree of difficulty, our intensive instruction is designed to create significant, lasting change.

 

We also believe that learning should be exciting and rewarding. That’s why we build motivation into every part of the Learning Center experience. From Wacky Wednesdays, where students get silly and creative, to Magical Learning Moments that celebrate breakthroughs with joy, we make sure each day feels special. Our “Hooray for You” celebrations recognize personal achievements and help students feel proud of their progress.

We take pride in offering:

  • Personalized learning plans based on a thorough Learning Ability Evaluation
  • Ongoing, real-time progress monitoring to ensure steady, measurable growth
  • A strong focus on motivation and confidence-building, with caring instructors who create a safe, supportive space for learning
  • Regular communication with families, including updates, milestone celebrations, and collaborative planning

Motivation is key to success, and we keep students engaged with fun games, activities, and reward systems. These tools not only boost enjoyment but also inspire students to stay focused and reach their goals.

Most importantly, we get results. Many students make years of progress in just weeks of daily instruction. Our instruction helps students not only overcome their learning challenges but also gain the tools and confidence to thrive academically and beyond.

 

Support for Dyslexia and Other Reading Disorders at Lindamood-Bell
help for dyslexia and reading disorders

At Lindamood-Bell, we understand how dyslexia and other reading disorders can impact a student’s academic experience and self-confidence. That’s why our instruction goes beyond tutoring—we use evidence-based programs to develop the foundational skills needed for fluent reading and strong comprehension.

Our students’ success stories speak volumes. With the right support, they not only make measurable gains in reading but also discover newfound confidence and a love of learning.

 

 

If your child is struggling with dyslexia or another reading disorder, we’re here to help. Our team is ready to create a personalized learning plan that meets your child’s unique needs and unlocks their true potential.

Get in touch or call 800-233-1819 to learn more.

The Science of Learning | Lindamood-Bell’s Approach to the Science of Reading

For Schools, Professional Development, Reading, , ,

The Science of Reading and Lindamood-Bell

The Science of Learning

Lindamood-Bell goes beyond the Science of Reading by incorporating the Cognitive Science of Learning, embracing the brain-based codes of learning beyond written language. Our approach emphasizes sensory-cognitive skills—symbol imagery (orthographic processing) and concept imagery (mental representations)—essential for decoding, fluency, and oral and written language comprehension. Though overlooked in the Science of Reading, these skills are crucial for developing lifelong learners, not just readers.

Since 1986, Lindamood-Bell has led evidence-based instruction for early literacy, struggling readers, and students with learning challenges such as dyslexia, dyscalculia, and memory and language comprehension deficits, including autism. While some of our methods align with the Science of Reading, our unique focus on sensory-cognitive skills provides a crucial foundation for improving reading fluency and comprehension.

 

Enhancing the Science of Reading: Exploring the Science of Learning and Sensory-Cognitive Functions

The Science of Learning methods

The “Science of Reading” (SoR) has been adopted by most reading programs and is legislated in the majority of states. Although ongoing literacy reform initiatives, using the SoR as the basis for improving reading, encompass some fundamental findings of peer-reviewed research, they are inadequate for what is necessary to learn how to read, particularly for those who struggle the most with reading. Current research in the cognitive sciences offers a more robust evidence-based science, including a new theoretical model that includes reading, and literacy, within the larger framework of learning.

 

The Cognitive Science of Learning

 

While learning to decode entails integrating auditory (phonological), visual (orthographic), and language (linguistic) modalities, there is a more comprehensive set of cognitive processes using mental representations/multi-sensory imagery that is foundational for decoding, oral and written language comprehension, working memory, long-term memory, and metacognition. These additional processes are grounded in a second mental representational code, beyond just language, in the brain necessary for all learning, called Dual Coding Theory (DCT) (Paivio, 1971; Bell et al., 2003; McCallum et al., 2006; Kosslyn, 1994; Sadoski et al., 2012).

Lindamood-Bell’s approach to literacy instruction is based on a Cognitive Science of Learning, including the reading brain and its more formative sensory-cognitive processes. Recognizing that reading is based on utilizing the sensory codes in the brain necessary to learn has led to a deeper understanding of what it takes to learn to read. Learning to read is a crucial cognitive activity, and any reading approach must align with a theory of cognition (Sadoski & Willson, 2006). The SoR is based on the teaching or stimulation of a singular code, language, predominantly the teaching of phonics—learning to decode and encode. While teaching reading through stimulation of the component parts of language is necessary, it is not sufficient based on a large corpus of research in cognitive science. 

For proficient reading, these imaginal sensory-cognitive factors (Bell, 1991; Lindamood et al., 1997) underlie reading skills (e.g., letter-sound knowledge, phonics, orthography, fluency, vocabulary, comprehension). One crucial sensory-cognitive factor in the language code is phonological awareness, acknowledged as a fundamental skill for reading (National Reading Panel, 2000), largely due to the pioneering work in phonemic awareness instruction by Pat Lindamood, a co-founder of Lindamood-Bell.

Symbol imagery and concept imagery are two additional critical sensory-cognitive factors related to imagery, which significantly impact language, literacy, and learning abilities (Bell, 2007; Bell, 2013). Despite their importance, these factors are often crucially overlooked or assumed in instructional approaches for struggling readers. The significance of imagery in literacy skills, for both decoding and comprehension, is supported by the well-established DCT in general cognition (Sadoski et al., 2012; Sadoski & Krasny, 2018), which has implications for mental representations, memory, and metacognition.

While phonological awareness and phonics are essential, they alone are insufficient. Sensory-cognitive skills like symbol imagery and concept imagery should be addressed to help poor readers maximize their learning potential in reading. These skills should be explicitly developed in emerging readers (K-2) to establish strong reading foundations and reduce the likelihood of future reading difficulties. Extensive research supports this approach to literacy instruction.

 

How Sensory-Cognitive Instruction Expands on the Science of Reading

 

1. Comprehension: The SoR emphasizes the Simple View of Reading (Gough & Tunmer, 1986), focusing on word reading (decoding) and language skills linked to reading comprehension. However, many students struggle with separate comprehension/sensory-cognitive weaknesses despite adequate decoding and oral language skills (Duke & Cartwright, 2021). The Visualizing and Verbalizing® program addresses these weaknesses by developing processes like concept imagery, the mental representational code crucial for comprehension.

2. Orthographic and phonological processing: The SoR, often seen as a structured literacy approach, heavily emphasizes early decoding skills but underestimates the orthographic processing (symbol imagery) necessary for automatic word recognition and fluency. For comprehensive reading skills, the Seeing Stars® program focuses on developing symbol imagery as the foundation for phonological and orthographic processing, leading to reading automaticity.

3. Dyslexia: Many students with dyslexia struggle despite explicit instruction in phonemic awareness and phonics principles. While they may excel in sound discrimination and phonics rules, they often struggle with fluent reading, affecting comprehension. Sensory-cognitive instruction fills this gap, aiding struggling students in overcoming reading difficulties.

4. Intensive intervention: Most intervention models are not intensive enough and include unnecessary linguistic strategies and routines, often inefficient in accelerating reading skills. Our approach prioritizes intensity and focuses on sensory-cognitive skills to address the root cause(s) of poor reading, enhancing processing rates and bridging the reading gap.

Cascade for Reading

5. Cascade for Reading (Figure 1): The cascade model illustrates the interconnected parts of reading. Our approach explicitly and systematically develops sensory-cognitive processes and reading components tailored to individual student needs. Consciously integrating sensory input like imagery/mental representations distinguishes this approach, facilitating skill transfer and independence in reading.

 

Nanci Bell (2013), literacy expert, author, and co-founder of Lindamood-Bell, noted, “The complex skill of reading requires the integration and interplay of several component subskills of reading. It also requires an automatic, nearly unconscious performance of those subskills that is enabled by the activation of mental representations (imagery) at a conscious level. Bringing imagery to consciousness with explicit instructional methodology will profoundly improve literacy skills” (Bell, 2013, p. 49). 

 

Beyond the Science of Reading: The Cognitive Science of Learning and Dual Coding Theory

 

The limitations of the “Science of Reading” approach are evident, particularly in its narrow focus on decoding and language skills, overlooking crucial sensory-cognitive factors essential for comprehensive literacy development. The Cognitive Science of Learning, DCT, emphasizes the integration of sensory modalities and cognitive processes necessary for proficient reading. Sensory-cognitive factors such as phonological awareness, symbol imagery, and concept imagery play a pivotal role in literacy instruction, addressing the needs of struggling readers and creating a strong foundation for reading.

Nanci Bell’s insights underscore the significance of bringing imagery to consciousness through explicit instructional methodologies, leading to profound improvements in literacy skills. By expanding beyond the SoR and embracing DCT through the stimulation of sensory-cognitive functions, educators can better equip students with the essential skills for successful reading and comprehension.

Through targeted interventions like the Visualizing and Verbalizing® program and Seeing Stars® program, students can develop the necessary sensory-cognitive skills alongside traditional reading components, creating a holistic approach to literacy instruction. This comprehensive framework not only addresses the diverse needs of learners but also promotes lifelong literacy success.

Integrating a Cognitive Science of Learning that explicitly addresses Sensorimotor functions into literacy instruction marks a significant advancement in enhancing reading abilities. It paves the way for more inclusive and effective educational practices that promote literacy for all learners.

 

Resources for Educators

Science of Learning resources

At Lindamood-Bell, we offer professional development workshops in our approach, which is based on the cognitive science of learning and aligns with the Science of Reading and structured literacy. It is unique in its focus on the sensory-cognitive skill of imagery, often a critical missing component for struggling readers, as a basis for reading fluency and language comprehension. Educators may learn the steps of the programs authored by Lindamood-Bell’s founders:

Reading and Spelling Programs

Seeing Stars

Symbol Imagery for Phonological and Orthographic Processing in Reading and Spelling

Lindamood Phoneme Sequencing (LiPS)

Phonemic Awareness for Reading, Spelling, and Speech

Comprehension Programs

Visualizing and Verbalizing (VV)

Concept Imagery for Language Comprehension, Thinking, and Memory

Talkies

Foundational Development in Concept Imagery, Oral Language Comprehension, and Expression

 

A Teacher’s Perspective

Special Educator Sonya Bledsoe describes her experience using the Seeing Stars program with her students:

 

Explore our schedule of online professional development workshops or click here to schedule a brief consultation with a program expert.

We look forward to helping you provide evidence-based instruction that will help your students reach their full potential.

 

 

References

Bell, N. (1991). Gestalt imagery: A critical factor in language comprehension. Annals of Dyslexia, 41(1), 246–260. doi:10.1007/BF02648089

Bell, N. (2007). Visualizing and Verbalizing for Language Comprehension and Thinking (2nd edition) Gander Publishing.

Bell, N. (2013). Seeing Stars: Symbol Imagery for Phonological and Orthographic Processing in Reading and Spelling (2nd edition). Gander Publishing.

Bell, S. M., McCallum, R. S., & Cox, E. A. (2003). Toward a research-based assessment of dyslexia: using cognitive measures to identify reading disabilities. Journal of learning disabilities, 36(6), 505–516. https://doi.org/10.1177/00222194030360060201   

Duke, N.K., & Cartwright, K.B. (2021). The Science of Reading Progresses: Communicating Advances Beyond the Simple View of Reading. Reading Research Quarterly, 56 (S1) pp. S25 -S44.  

Gough, P. B., & Tunmer, W. E. (1986). Decoding, Reading, and Reading Disability. Remedial and Special Education, 7(1), 6–10. https://doi.org/10.1177/074193258600700104  

Kosslyn, S.M. (1994). Image and brain: The resolution of the imagery debate. The MIT Press. 

Lindamood, P. C., Bell, N., & Lindamood, P. D. (1997). Sensory-cognitive factors in the controversy over reading instruction. Journal of Developmental and Learning Disorders 1(1), 143-182. Retrieved from http://www.icdl.com/bookstore/icdl-publications/journal-of-development-and-learning

McCallum, R. S., Bell, S. M., Wood, M. S., Below, J. L., Choate, S. M., & McCane, S. J. (2006). What is the role of working memory in reading relative to the big three processing variables (orthography, phonology, and rapid naming)? Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 24(3), 243–259. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734282906287938 . 

National Reading Panel (US), National Institute of Child Health & Human Development (US). (2000). Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction: Reports of the subgroups. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health. https://www.nichd.nih.gov/sites/default/files/publications/pubs/nrp/Documents/report.pdf  

Paivio, A. (1971). Imagery and verbal processes. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.

Sadoski, M., & Krasny, K. A. (2018). Dual coding theory: An embodied theory of literacy. In D.E. Alvermann, N.J. Unrau, M. Sailors, & R.B. Ruddell (Eds.), Theoretical Models and Processes of Literacy (7th ed., pp. 161-177). Routledge.  

Sadoski, M., McTigue, E. M., & Paivio, A. (2012). A dual coding theoretical model of decoding in reading: Subsuming the Laberge and Samuels model. Reading Psychology, 33(5), 465-496. https://doi.org/10.1080/02702711.2011.557330  

Sadoski, M., & Willson, V. L. (2006). Effects of a Theoretically Based Large-Scale Reading Intervention in a Multicultural Urban School District. American Educational Research Journal, 43(1), 137-154. https://doi.org/10.3102/00028312043001137 

Scarborough, H. S. (2001). Connecting early language and literacy to later reading (dis)abilities: Evidence, theory, and practice. In S. Neuman & D. Dickinson (Eds.), Handbook for Research in Early Literacy. Guilford Press.

Summer Instruction to Help Your Child Reach Their Amazing Potential!

Instruction, Learning Centers

 

When pediatric neuropsychologist Dr. Boxer’s son struggled to learn how to read, Dr. Boxer and his wife enrolled their son in summer instruction at Lindamood-Bell. He says, “Everything changed after that…after the instruction, his reading took off.”

 

Watch their story:

 

Lindamood-Bell can provide your child with the right amount of effective, fun, evidence-based instruction that send them back to school with better skills and new confidence.

Save 10% on summer instruction when you enroll now.

It’s a great opportunity to give your child the support they need while making the most of summer learning.

 

Balance Learning and Fun This Summer

Every summer, we help kids of all ages and abilities catch up or get ahead in reading, comprehension, and math. We are uniquely prepared to help kids catch up and thrive—our instructional expertise and dynamic instruction set us apart! Students can achieve years of academic gain in a matter of weeks and can attend live-online or in person.

Proven effective for students with learning challenges

Our evidence-based instruction is proven effective for students with challenges that affect learning, including ADHD, dyslexia, and autism. 

Engaging Instruction

Our energetic instructors use strategies and incentives that keep students engaged throughout sessions. 

Spots are filling fast.

Get in Touch or call us now to learn more. 800-233-1819.

 

*Summer Savings valid for enrollments finalized by May 29, 2026. Requires enrollment of at least 100 sessions or the student’s recommended minimum. Must begin instruction by July 15th.

Prevent Learning Loss with Our Summer Tutoring Program for Reading and Math

Learning Camps, Math, Reading, ,

summer tutoring program for reading and math

When school resumes in the fall, many students return with gaps in their learning, having forgotten some of the material they mastered earlier in the year. Extended time away from school can result in measurable learning loss, particularly in critical subjects like reading and math. However, imagine your child returning to school in the fall with enhanced skills, ready to tackle the new year with confidence and a solid academic foundation.

At Lindamood-Bell, we turn what could be a setback into an opportunity for growth. By enrolling your child in our summer tutoring program, you’re providing them with the chance to prevent learning loss and even make significant gains. Whether your child needs support to catch up or aims to get ahead for the upcoming school year, our program offers a personalized approach that ensures academic success.

We work with students of all levels, from those with diagnosed learning challenges to those who simply want to boost their skills. Our first step is to identify each child’s unique strengths and weaknesses in areas including reading, comprehension, and math. From there, we create an individualized instruction plan that addresses their specific needs, resulting in measurable learning gains. After just a few weeks in our program, students return to school feeling more confident and better prepared for the challenges ahead.

 

Why a Summer Tutoring Program Matters

summer tutoring program helps reading

Summer break may be a time of regression for many students, especially those struggling with foundational learning skills. Our summer tutoring program ensures that your child stays engaged, focused, and on track to maintain their skills—or even make progress—over the summer months. With personalized, one-on-one instruction, we provide the tools your child needs to not only prevent learning loss but also achieve growth that will set them up for success in the upcoming school year.

 

What Makes Our Summer Tutoring Program Different?

Lindamood-Bell summer tutoring program

At Lindamood-Bell, our summer tutoring program offers a truly unique approach, one that contrasts sharply with the typical tutoring experience. You won’t find classrooms filled with students, generic worksheets, or impersonal instruction here. Instead, we focus on one-to-one, individualized instruction tailored specifically to your child’s needs. We begin with a comprehensive Learning Ability Evaluation to understand their strengths and areas for improvement, allowing us to design a personalized plan that targets their specific learning goals.

We use innovative, evidence-based programs that build foundational skills in reading, comprehension, and math—whether your child needs support catching up or wants to get ahead. We prioritize personalized attention, ensuring that each session is centered on your child’s pace and progress. With a dedicated instruction team, your child receives the focus they need to master each concept before moving on.

What sets our summer tutoring apart is the engaging and dynamic environment we create. Our approach is not only effective but also enjoyable, turning learning into a positive experience. Rather than the one-size-fits-all lessons you might expect from other programs, our methods are designed to unlock your child’s full potential. By the end of the program, your child will leave with newfound confidence, empowerment, and a strong foundation for the upcoming school year—something traditional tutoring simply can’t offer.

 

Areas of Focus in Our Summer Tutoring Program

summer tutoring program for kids

Our summer tutoring program offers personalized support in key academic areas, ensuring your child receives the focused attention they need to succeed. Here’s how we can help:

  • Reading: Whether your child struggles with reading or is looking to strengthen their existing skills, our unique approach will make a difference. We address underlying issues and provide targeted instruction to help your child develop the necessary skills for reading success.
  • Math: For students struggling with math concepts, our summer tutoring program provides the perfect opportunity to reinforce foundational skills. We make math more concrete and less stressful, helping your child gain confidence and mastery in this vital subject.
  • Comprehension: We focus on enhancing your child’s ability to understand and retain information. Through targeted activities, we teach students how to visualize and connect concepts, improving memory, vocabulary, and critical thinking skills—key components of academic success.
  • Early Learning: Emerging readers preparing for kindergarten or first grade can develop essential skills for a smooth transition. Our instruction builds the foundation for reading, spelling, and comprehension using proven methods that make early learning enjoyable and effective.
  • Academic Prep: For students looking to enhance writing, study skills, organization, and test-taking abilities, our Academic Prep program provides expert instruction to build these essential skills. It’s a great way to prepare for the upcoming school year and set your child up for success.

Each area of focus is designed to meet your child’s specific needs, giving them the tools and confidence to succeed academically.

 

Real Results from Our Summer Tutoring Program

Parents consistently share how our summer tutoring program has made a remarkable difference in their children’s academic performance. In the video below, Dr. Oren Boxer, a pediatric neuropsychologist, shares how Lindamood-Bell’s evidence-based instruction completely transformed his son’s learning experience. After participating in our Summer Tutoring program, his son developed crucial skills that unlocked his full potential. Dr. Boxer’s expert insights, paired with his personal journey, highlight the significant impact our program has on students of all ages and abilities. Watch this inspiring success story:

 

At Lindamood-Bell, we strive to deliver this level of transformation for every student. Our goal is to help each child build the confidence and skills needed to succeed academically. Explore our student gains to see how we’ve empowered thousands of students to achieve real, measurable results in just a few weeks.

 

Flexible Scheduling to Fit Your Family’s Needs

flexible scheduling at our summer tutoring program

We know that summer can be a time for family vacations, sports, and other activities, so we’ve designed our summer tutoring program to fit into your family’s busy schedule. Whether your preferred session times are in the morning or afternoon, we work with you to create a plan that aligns with your summer routine.

And if you have a vacation or travel plans, don’t worry! We can often schedule breaks or provide online tutoring sessions to ensure your child’s learning progress remains consistent. Our goal is to change student learning, while making the experience as convenient and flexible as possible, so your child can continue making strides without disrupting your summer fun.

 

Get Started with Our Summer Tutoring Program

Get started at our summer tutoring program

Don’t let learning loss from a summer off hinder your child’s academic success. Our summer tutoring program for reading and math is designed to keep students engaged and prepared for the upcoming school year. With personalized one-on-one instruction, your child will strengthen essential academic skills and build the confidence needed to thrive in the classroom. Don’t miss the chance for your child to make real progress this summer. Call us at 800-300-1818 to schedule an evaluation or find your nearest location.

Technology, Screen Time, and Cognitive Development in Children

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Human Interaction vs. Technology in Learning

At Lindamood-Bell Learning Processes, our instructional model is deeply rooted in evidence showing the optimal ways children achieve cognitive development. Research increasingly supports the view that children develop language, literacy, and executive functions best through rich human interaction rather than excessive screen time. Our founders and long-time colleagues have championed this perspective for decades, emphasizing the importance of nurturing children’s brain development through direct human engagement.

 

Urgency of the Screen Time Debate

The conversation about technology, screen time, and their impact on children’s cognitive development has reached a pivotal moment in educational discourse. Recently, the second-largest school district in the country, Los Angeles Unified School District, announced it will scale back classroom screen use. Meta CEO Mark Zuckerberg testified in a landmark Los Angeles trial focusing on whether social media platforms are designed to be addictive and detrimental to children. The jury found Meta (Instagram/Facebook) and YouTube (Google) liable for designing addictive platforms that harmed a 20-year-old woman’s mental health. Concurrently, neuroscientist Dr. Jared Cooney Horvath’s congressional testimony has underscored the flawed defense that there is “no definitive evidence of harm.” He presents evidence such as Utah’s reversal of rising achievement scores following the introduction of digital tools in classrooms in 2014, a trend mirrored in national and international data. The documentary series Screenagers has highlighted these issues, sparking discussions in schools and communities nationwide about the need to reconsider screen time in the context of children’s brain development.

 

The Case for Sensory-Cognitive Stimulation Over Technology

Nanci Bell, co-founder of Lindamood-Bell Learning Processes, advocates for rich sensory-cognitive stimulation as the cornerstone for literacy and learning. Her work emphasizes that meaningful cognitive development is driven by rich, interactive instruction–not passive exposure to technology. While digital tools can support instruction, they cannot replace the essential human interactions that build imagery, language, and comprehension.  

This principle is embedded throughout the Lindamood-Bell instructional model, which prioritizes direct, responsive engagement aligned with the Socratic method in which instructors prompt students to think, visualize, and articulate their understanding. Through carefully sequenced questioning, students are not given answers but are led to construct meaning themselves through responding to their responses.  In this framework, technology is best positioned as a supplement—not a substitute. Enduring learning depends on active cognitive engagement, and that is most effectively cultivated through intentional, human-centered instruction

 

Insights from Developmental Neuropsychology

Dr. Jane Healy, a developmental neuropsychologist and a frequent speaker at past Lindamood-Bell Learning Processes’ Research Conferences, reinforces this view with her research. Her books Endangered Minds and Failure to Connect examine how modern media habits can disrupt the cognitive pathways essential for reading and critical thinking. Once considered a fringe position, her insights are now gaining mainstream attention as they are debated in courts and Congress, highlighting the potential implications of screen time on children’s brain development.

 

The Importance of Concept Imagery and Direct Instruction

Lindamood-Bell recognizes the importance of concept imagery, the brain’s ability to generate mental pictures from language. This skill is cultivated through auditory stimulation, storytelling, direct conversation, and reading. In contrast, screen-based activities offer pre-made images, bypassing the brain’s creative work. Passive screen consumption and gamified apps fail to nurture concept imagery, detracting from reading, storytelling, and language interaction, all vital for cognitive development in children.

 

Commitment to Human-Led Instruction

At Lindamood-Bell Learning Processes, we reject the notion of gamifying instruction or relying on educational technology as a replacement for direct, educator-led teaching. Our approach underscores the importance of the human relationship between instructor and student, fostering dynamic, responsive interaction that stimulates concept imagery and language development, far surpassing any app in nurturing brain development in children.

 

The Critical Role of Screen Time Management in Cognitive Development

We emphasize that parents and educators need to understand: screen time is not a neutral choice during crucial windows of early cognitive development. Limiting screen time and replacing it with activities such as reading aloud, storytelling, conversation, and direct instruction aligns with scientific evidence. This approach supports what Dr. Healy has long advocated, what researchers and filmmakers are conveying to the public, and what Lindamood-Bell Learning Processes has built its entire model upon. By managing screen time effectively, we can foster optimal brain development in children and support their cognitive growth.

 

Support for Learning at Lindamood-Bell

Our highly trained instructors use research-based techniques to develop the underlying skills necessary for learning success. Through one-to-one instruction, we address your child’s specific needs and help them reach their full potential.

At Lindamood-Bell, we are committed to providing the highest quality learning support. Our programs are proven to improve learning outcomes and help students regain their confidence in the classroom. Contact us to learn more or call 800-300-1818.