All posts by Julie Gisbon

What Does a Reading Specialist Do? Expert Instruction and Literacy Support from Lindamood-Bell

Instruction, Professional Development, Reading

what does a reading specialist do

What Is a Reading Specialist?

When parents search for a reading specialist, they often seek expert support to help a child improve their reading accuracy, understanding, and confidence. They look for a professional who understands how children learn to read and applies this expertise when progress has slowed or challenges persist.

In school settings, reading specialists may work under titles such as literacy interventionist, dyslexia specialist, special education reading teacher, or reading intervention teacher. Their work typically includes individualized or small-group instruction to address challenges with decoding, fluency, and comprehension. Many also support classroom teachers through professional development, coaching, and the implementation of literacy programs.

For families seeking expert reading support and development and schools focused on improving literacy outcomes, Lindamood-Bell’s founders’ evidence-based programs provide a proven foundation for lasting gains in reading and learning.

 

The Role of a Reading Specialist 

role of a reading specialist

At its core, the role of a reading specialist is to identify why reading is difficult and to provide instruction that targets the underlying causes—not just the symptoms—of reading challenges.

At Lindamood-Bell Learning Centers, this role is fulfilled by a team of instructional experts who support each child from evaluation through instruction and ongoing educational guidance. Each student begins with a comprehensive Learning Ability Evaluation, which identifies learning strengths, challenges, and the most effective path forward.

Based on this evaluation, the experts at the Learning Center develop individualized instructional recommendations, lesson plans, and relevant goals—providing the depth of expertise families expect when seeking a reading specialist.

Instruction is delivered using truly evidence-based programs designed to develop the foundational skills that underlie reading, comprehension, and learning. This integrated approach ensures instruction is precise, intentional, and responsive to each student’s needs.

 

Reading Specialist Instruction at Lindamood-Bell Learning Centers

instruction with a reading specialist

Instruction at Lindamood-Bell Learning Centers is delivered by dedicated instructors who work one-to-one with each child, delivering the steps of instruction exactly as outlined in the individualized lesson plan. Instruction includes:

  • individualized lesson plans based on a comprehensive Learning Ability Evaluation for each student, 
  • one-to-one instruction focused on foundational literacy skills, 
  • ongoing progress monitoring to ensure measurable growth, 
  • and instructional quality oversight from our most experienced instructional team members. 

Instruction at Lindamood-Bell does more than teach reading rules or provide practice—it develops the underlying sensory-cognitive processing that makes learning possible. Families often seek a reading specialist when a child guesses at words, struggles with comprehension, or lacks confidence. Lindamood-Bell’s individualized instruction directly targets these challenges for students.

Does Your Child Need a Reading Specialist? Consider Lindamood-Bell

Ready to get started? Contact us to set up a comprehensive Learning Ability Evaluation. 

 

Professional Development at Lindamood-Bell for Reading Specialists

professional development for reading specialist

Lindamood-Bell also partners with reading specialists, special education teachers, and literacy professionals who want to use our approach with their own students. Through live, online professional development workshops, educators learn to implement programs that address the sensory-cognitive skills underlying learning and literacy, including: Seeing Stars Symbol Imagery for Phonological and Orthographic Processing in Reading and Spelling (SI) and Visualizing and Verbalizing for Language Comprehension and Thinking (V/V). Our interactive teacher workshops empower reading specialists to apply proven methodologies directly with the students they serve individually, in small groups, or in classrooms.

Contact us to learn more about professional development opportunities designed to strengthen literacy instruction at your school.

Beyond Dyslexia Accommodations: Building Independent Reading Skills

Dyslexia, Instruction, Learning Difficulties, , ,

Students with dyslexia face challenges in reading and spelling that can make learning frustrating and affect confidence. Dyslexia accommodations are tools that may allow learners to access grade-level content while their skills develop. These accommodations can reduce barriers, support engagement, and help students demonstrate their knowledge.

Students may be enrolled in a public or private school, where accommodations for dyslexia can significantly improve their day-to-day learning. At the same time, some students need more intensive, individualized instruction to address the root causes of their reading difficulties. 

Lindamood-Bell offers two additional pathways for these learners: attending Lindamood-Bell Academy (LBA) for a full-school experience centered on sensory-cognitive instruction, or receiving one-on-one sensory-cognitive instruction at a Lindamood-Bell Learning Center to develop the sensory-cognitive foundation for reading. 

To hear how students with dyslexia have learned with our approach, check out this remarkable student story: True Grit – A student with dyslexia tells his story.

This article highlights some dyslexia accommodations that may be available at school, details LBA’s individualized learning, explains Learning Center instruction, and offers practical next steps for families with children facing reading challenges.

 

Dyslexia Accommodations in School

Dyslexia accommodations in a public or private school setting may help students access the curriculum while they build reading and spelling skills. They can help learners participate without being limited by difficulties with decoding or written expression. Examples of some  dyslexia accommodations include

  •  Access to audiobooks or text-to-speech for core content
  • Sharing guided notes, outlines, or slides ahead of time
  • Extra time on assignments, quizzes, and tests
  • Alternative response formats such as oral presentations, visuals, or recorded answers
  • Strategic seating and quiet work areas to minimize distractions
  • Assistive technology such as spell check, word prediction, and speech-to-text

These dyslexia accommodations can help students stay engaged, build confidence, and demonstrate knowledge. Schools often document these supports in an Individualized Education Program (IEP) or Section 504 Plan to ensure consistent implementation.

 

Lindamood-Bell Academy (LBA): A Full-School Approach

Unlike traditional schools, LBA develops the sensory-cognitive processing that is the foundation for learning. Lindamood-Bell Academy is the only school that intentionally prioritizes the underlying language processing skills that students require for success in school and life. 

At LBA:

  • Instruction is individualized to develop symbol imagery, phonemic awareness, and concept imagery for fluent reading and language comprehension.
  • Curriculum pacing is adjusted to each learner’s needs.
  • Students progress at their own rate while accessing a complete school curriculum.
  • We meet the needs of students with dyslexia by providing intensive instruction first, ensuring they can access grade-level content right away.

This approach is particularly effective for students whose reading challenges prevent them from keeping pace in a typical classroom, including learners diagnosed with dyslexia, ADHD, or other learning differences.

 

Lindamood-Bell Learning Centers: Sensory-Cognitive Instruction

For families who prefer their child to remain at their current school, the Lindamood-Bell Learning Center offers intensive one-on-one or small-group sensory-cognitive instruction. This instruction

  • targets foundational skills needed for accurate, fluent reading;
  • strengthens symbol imagery and phonological awareness;
  • and produces measurable improvements in decoding, reading fluency, and comprehension.

 

How to Get Started if Your Child Is Struggling

Lindamood-Bell instruction is available both in-person and live online, giving families flexibility without compromising quality. The first step is a comprehensive Learning Ability Evaluation, which identifies your child’s strengths and areas of need. Based on the results, we may recommend a plan for one-on-one instruction at a Lindamood-Bell Learning Center or enrollment in LBA. This personalized approach targets the root causes of reading and learning difficulties, helping your child thrive academically and build confidence. 

Schedule a Learning Ability Evaluation today to start your child’s journey to reading success.

 

Why Specialized Instruction Matters

While dyslexia accommodations may reduce barriers and provide access to content, they do not address the underlying reading difficulties. At Lindamood-Bell, students develop the sensory-cognitive processes essential for independent reading. Benefits of this approach include:

  • more accurate decoding;
  • improved reading fluency;
  • and stronger comprehension and writing skills.

Lindamood-Bell instruction is intensive, evidence-based, and individualized, producing measurable gains in reading and supporting long-term academic achievement. For nearly four decades, we have worked with thousands of learners, and our success comes from our unique, sensory-cognitive approach to literacy instruction.

The Seeing Stars® program is specifically designed to support students with dyslexia. It develops symbol imagery, the ability to visualize letters within words—a skill crucial for sounding out new words, recognizing common words, spelling accurately, and reading fluently in context.

Learn more about our experience and results with students diagnosed with dyslexia in ‘Understanding the Signs of Dyslexia’.

 

Supporting Students with Dyslexia

While school-based dyslexia accommodations can help students access grade-level content, they do not remediate dyslexia or teach the brain how to read. Lindamood-Bell Academy’s full-school approach and Learning Center sensory-cognitive instruction directly develop the underlying processes required for accurate, fluent reading. Families can partner with Lindamood-Bell to select the pathway that best meets their child’s needs—so students can participate in learning today while building the real reading skills essential for lifelong success.

If your student is struggling with dyslexia or reading difficulties, we encourage you to contact Lindamood-Bell. We have the expertise and resources to provide personalized support and intervention. Together, we can build a brighter future for your child. Contact us today to schedule a Learning Ability Evaluation or call 800-233-1819 to learn more about how we can help.

Bridging the Gap: How Lindamood-Bell Supports At-Promise and Opportunity Youth Through Literacy and Imagery

For Schools, Reading

Lindamood-Bell supports At-Promise Youth

At Lindamood-Bell, we believe that every student can learn to their potential—especially those who have been historically underserved, overlooked, or underestimated. Across the country, we are working alongside educators, juvenile justice programs, and workforce development initiatives to change the trajectory for at-promise and opportunity youth by closing one of the most critical barriers to equity: the comprehension gap.

At the recent 2025 RAPSA Forum, we had the honor of presenting our session on “Closing the Comprehension Gap: Unlocking Potential Through Concept Imagery.” This conversation emphasized what decades of cognitive and instructional research have shown: when students are explicitly taught how to comprehend through imagery, they gain access not only to academics but also to life skills, career pathways, and a sense of agency.

 

Supporting Literacy Where It Matters Most

Our work with at-promise youth is grounded in science, guided by compassion, and driven by results. Two projects, in particular, demonstrate the powerful impact of Lindamood-Bell instruction on youth who face significant challenges.

Project of Hope – San Diego Juvenile Justice System

Through a groundbreaking partnership with the San Diego County Juvenile Court and Community Schools, Lindamood-Bell delivered intensive, sensory-cognitive instruction to youth involved in the justice system. The program, Project of Hope, focused on developing both decoding and comprehension skills using the Seeing Stars and Visualizing and Verbalizing programs.

The SANDAG Impact Evaluation Report found that participants made significant gains in reading and language skills—gains that translated into improved engagement and confidence. Youth who had previously struggled with basic comprehension were now able to understand instructions, follow through on goals, and see themselves as learners for the first time.

Workforce Readiness at Michigan Career and Technical Institute (MCTI)

In another pioneering initiative, Lindamood-Bell partnered with the Michigan Career and Technical Institute, which serves young adults with barriers to employment. Many participants had undiagnosed learning challenges, including dyslexia, that affected their ability to succeed in job training.

A study by Laurel Disney (2021) demonstrated that Lindamood-Bell instruction at MCTI led to significant improvements in foundational literacy and comprehension, providing students with access to career certifications, independent living skills, and enhancing their long-term employability.

 

Why Concept Imagery Matters for At-Promise Youth

Opportunity youth—those who are not currently in school or employed—often face challenges that extend beyond academics. They may have experienced trauma, inconsistent schooling, and social or systemic barriers. But one common thread is often present: difficulty with reading comprehension.

This is where concept imagery becomes life-changing.

The Visualizing and Verbalizing program develops students’ ability to create mental imagery from oral and written language. This skill transforms how they understand information—whether it’s a textbook, a job application, or a set of verbal instructions at work. 

For at-promise youth, concept imagery strengthens:

  • Life skills – following steps, solving problems, understanding social situations

  • Job skills – comprehending training materials, safety instructions, and schedules

  • Personal development – building confidence, communication, and goal setting

 

Building a Pathway Forward

We know that literacy is a gateway, not just to school success but to long-term independence, employability, and empowerment. That’s why Lindamood-Bell continues to partner with schools, non-profits, and workforce agencies to bring evidence-based instruction to the students who need it most.

If you’re serving at-promise or opportunity youth in your community and want to close the comprehension gap, we’re here to help. Let’s work together to make the promise of literacy—and a brighter future—real for every learner.

 

Contact us to learn more about our partnerships and how we can support your program.

What is Aphantasia?

Comprehension, Learning Difficulties

 

Understanding Aphantasia

Aphantasia is a condition in which an individual cannot form or has difficulty forming visual images in their mind. It is thought to affect an estimated 2-5% of the population. Though not widely recognized, understanding this phenomenon is helpful for educators, parents, and individuals. Termed by Professor Adam Zeman in 2015, aphantasia seems to affect one’s capacity to imagine or recall details about people, places, objects, or events. 

Aphantasia can range from the complete absence of visual imagery to faint or fragmented images. Some individuals report that they cannot create any mental images, while others may have limited or blurry ones. Some report that they experience variations in visualizing specific types of images, such as faces, landscapes, or objects, underscoring the complexity of the condition and its potential impact on learning and daily life.

These difficulties are not related to vision impairment but reflect differences in how the brain processes information. Recent studies suggest aphantasia occurs in about 4% of the general population, and due to its subjective nature, the number of individuals who would meet the criteria is still being determined. (Dance, Ipser, Simner, 2022)

Although the exact cause of aphantasia is not fully understood, researchers have identified several potential triggers and contributing factors. One possible cause is the lack of activation or connectivity in the brain’s visual processing areas. Studies have shown that individuals with aphantasia exhibit reduced activity in the visual cortex, suggesting a neurological basis for the condition. People with this condition often struggle to recall or recognize visual details from past experiences, indicating a connection between visual imagery and memory retrieval.(Montabes de la Cruz, Belén M. et al. 2024)

Additionally, individuals’ ability to generate mental imagery varies and a distinctive relationship exists between image generation and cognitive processes such as memory and language comprehension. Indeed, the correspondence between imaginal skills and learning in general is pervasive.

At Lindamood-Bell, our nearly forty years of clinical research and experience have shown that many students struggle to create holistic or gestalt images due to weaknesses in the brain’s sensory systems. 

Lindamood-Bell refers to this as concept imagery, the ability to create an imaged gestalt from oral and written language. It has been found that this ability is crucial for oral and written language comprehension, including understanding abstract and complex ideas. While individuals may have differing abilities, the imaginal processes needed for reading comprehension are not different. Sensory-cognitive functions such as creating mental representations can be developed, changing an individual’s ability to comprehend oral and written language.

Individuals with aphantasia can benefit from explicit instruction on how to image. The Visualizing and Verbalizing® (V/V®) program develops concept imagery—the ability to create an imagined or imaged gestalt from language—as a basis for comprehension and higher-order thinking. The development of concept imagery improves reading and listening comprehension, memory, oral vocabulary, critical thinking, and writing.

Lindamood-Bell is contributing to the growing body of research regarding aphantasia.  

At The Eye’s Mind: Visual Imagination, Neuroscience and the Humanities Conference in the United Kingdom, Lindamood-Bell co-founder and author of Visualizing and Verbalizing for Language Comprehension and Thinking, Nanci Bell, and Lindamood-Bell’s Research and Development Director, Paul Worthington, contributed to the conference dialogue on the role of imagery in education. Their presentation, Visual Imagery: The Nonverbal Code for Language and Cognition, underscored the critical link between visual imagery and cognitive functions, emphasizing how behavioral neuroscience has confirmed the foundational role of visual imagery in oral and written language comprehension. Recent studies have also documented how improving visual imagery can address deficits like aphantasia, correlating these findings with language comprehension improvements.

Grounded in Dual Coding Theory (DCT), which asserts that human cognition relies on both verbal and nonverbal processing, the session highlighted how systematic instructional approaches can activate the nonverbal imagery code, facilitating language skills in learners of all ages. Drawing on over 30 years of instructional experience and work with more than 35,000 children across the U.S., the U.K., and Australia, five key insights into the imagery-language connection have emerged:

  1. Significant individual differences exist in the ability to generate visual imagery.
  2. A strong correlation exists between visual imagination and language comprehension.
  3. Individuals can learn to consciously create visual images, leading to significant gains in reading and language comprehension.
  4. Linking the sensory input of imagery to language results in significant neurological changes and reading improvements in children with dyslexia
  5. Stimulating the imagery-language connection in children with autism spectrum disorder improves language comprehension, accompanied by fundamental changes in the connectivity of the brain regions involved in reading comprehension.

 

Diagnosis and Support for Aphantasia

support for aphantasia

Recognizing the signs and symptoms is the first step toward receiving appropriate support for aphantasia. Common indicators include an inability to visualize people, places, or objects, difficulty recalling visual details, and a general lack of concept imagery. At Lindamood-Bell, we understand that individuals of all ages may experience challenges related to weak concept imagery, which can result in difficulties with:

  • Reading comprehension
  • Listening comprehension
  • Critical thinking and problem-solving
  • Following directions
  • Memory
  • Oral language expression
  • Written language expression
  • Grasping humor
  • Interpreting social situations
  • Understanding cause and effect

Lindamood-Bell’s evidence-based instruction helps individuals develop their mental imagery abilities. The Visualizing and Verbalizing (V/V) program strengthens the sensory-cognitive skill of concept imagery. Our targeted instruction provides the foundation students need for academics and daily life.

 

Proven Results for Improving Comprehension  

Improving comprehension for students with aphantasia

At Lindamood-Bell, students receive individualized instruction using one or more of our founders’ evidence-based programs. The Visualizing and Verbalizing (V/V) program develops concept imagery—the ability to create an imaged gestalt from language—as a basis for comprehension and higher-order thinking. The development of concept imagery improves reading and listening comprehension, memory, oral vocabulary, critical thinking, and writing. Visualizing and Verbalizing® (V/V®) addresses the needs of students diagnosed with aphantasia. 

The following shows the pre- and post-instruction performance of all students who received Visualizing and Verbalizing instruction at Lindamood-Bell between 2008 and 2023. These students experienced large (statistically significant) improvements in all comprehension subtests after receiving Visualizing and Verbalizing instruction.

 

Results of Students Who Received Comprehension Instruction

 

Lindamood-Bell Instruction Implemented: Visualizing and Verbalizing

On average, students who received Visualizing and Verbalizing instruction achieved significant improvements in areas associated with language comprehension. Our Comprehension-Only student population represents about 24% of our total Learning Center population. They made large (statistically significant) standard score changes on two of the three measures. Additionally, the 22-point percentile increase in Written Language Comprehension moves these students from a deficit condition to well within the normal range (25th—75th percentile).

Year: Jan. 2008 – Dec. 2023

Number of Students: 6,462

Average Age: 12.4

Average Hours of Instruction: 103.8

 

Help for Aphantasia at Lindamood-Bell

help for aphantasia

Lindamood-Bell provides individualized, evidence-based instruction to assist students facing reading, comprehension, and math challenges, including those diagnosed with aphantasia. Whether your student has been diagnosed with aphantasia or is just struggling with comprehension, we can help. 

Our instruction begins with a comprehensive Learning Ability Evaluation. This assessment identifies underlying learning challenges and helps us understand your student’s unique needs. Based on the evaluation results, we develop a personalized instruction plan tailored to address the root causes of their learning difficulties. Take the first step toward transforming your student’s future by scheduling a Learning Ability Evaluation today.

 

Student Story: Overcoming Reading and Comprehension Difficulties 

Watch a family’s inspiring story of how Lindamood-Bell transformed their student’s learning. Through our programs, the student developed stronger mental imagery skills and significantly improved comprehension.

 

We believe every individual has the potential to thrive, and we are dedicated to helping students reach their full learning potential, including those who have a diagnosis of aphantasia. Contact us today to get started. 

Get in touch or call 800-300-1818 to learn more. 

 

References:

The prevalence of aphantasia (imagery weakness) in the general population,
Dance, C.J. et. al.
Consciousness and Cognition, Volume 97, 2022

Decoding sound content in the early visual cortex of aphantasic participants
Montabes de la Cruz, Belén M. et al.
Current Biology, Volume 34, Issue 21, 5083 – 5089.e3 2024

What Is Dual Coding Theory? Strengthening Reading and Comprehension

For Schools, Professional Development, Research

 

At Lindamood-Bell, our approach is grounded in Dual Coding Theory (DCT), a cognitive framework that demonstrates how the brain processes information. Developed by cognitive psychologist Allan Paivio, DCT posits that humans have both verbal and nonverbal systems for processing information. 

  • Verbal: Words, symbols, letters, phonemes, grammar, definitions, and mathematical notation.
  • Nonverbal: Mental images, scenes, diagrams, timelines, and sensory details like size, color, and movement.

 

Frequently Asked Questions About Dual Coding Theory

What is Dual Coding Theory?

DCT is a theory of mind that explains how the brain processes information using both verbal and visual systems simultaneously. Words paired with imagery create richer, more durable mental representations that improve comprehension, recall, and application of knowledge. Lindamood-Bell’s sensory-cognitive instruction applies these principles by strengthening concept imagery for comprehension as well as symbol imagery for reading and spelling.

Is Dual Coding Theory the same as “learning styles”?

No. DCT does not categorize learners as either visual or verbal. Instead, it shows that all learners benefit from integrating both imagery and language.

How does Dual Coding Theory support struggling readers?

Many struggling readers can decode but cannot form a unified mental image of the text. DCT-aligned instruction helps students build imagery for oral and written language, improving comprehension, memory, and critical thinking. Strengthening symbol imagery improves decoding accuracy, orthographic mapping, and spelling.

 

Dual Coding Theory: The Imagery-Language Connection in Literacy

The following section is excerpted from Visualizing and Verbalizing® for Language Comprehension and Thinking, V/V® Teacher’s Manual, Second Edition (2007) by Nanci Bell:

“Language comprehension is the ability to connect to and interpret meaning for both oral and written language. It includes the ability to recall facts, get the main idea, infer, conclude, predict, and evaluate. Language comprehension is a cognitive act. Instruction in comprehension must align with a theory of cognition. 

“The Visualizing and Verbalizing program (V/V) emerged from an experiential base, not a theoretical base. Years of experience teaching students to comprehend oral and written language eventually led to the sequential steps of V/V, a program specifically designed to develop language comprehension and thinking. In time, I learned that the principles of the Visualizing and Verbalizing program align with one of the most prominent theories in cognitive psychology—Dual Coding Theory. 

“Allan Paivio, a cognitive psychologist, researcher, and the originator of Dual Coding Theory, has written extensively about the role of imagery in cognition. Paivio (2006) explains that ‘As its name suggests, the theory is based on the assumption that thinking involves the activity of two distinct cognitive subsystems, a verbal system specialized for dealing directly with language and a nonverbal system specialized for dealing with nonlinguistic objects and events.’ 

“Paivio and Mark Sadoski (2001) specifically connect Dual Coding Theory to language processing for reading: 

Dual Coding Theory is the general theory of cognition that provides our unifying framework for literacy. This theory offers a comprehensive account of both verbal and nonverbal cognition. The inclusion of nonverbal aspects of cognition, such as mental imagery, is the most novel facet of this approach in a modern context, but it provides a comprehensive account of the verbal, linguistic aspects of cognition as well. Accordingly, it provides an explicit psychological account of literacy’s most central but elusive ingredient: meaning. 

“Sadoski (2006) simplifies the theory: ‘Dual coding theory is a theory of mind in which all cognition consists of the independent activity of, or interplay between, two great mental codes: a verbal code specialized for language and a nonverbal code specialized for knowledge of the world in the form of mental images.’ The theory that more than just a single, verbal code is needed for language comprehension is consistent with my numerous years of experience teaching students to comprehend and interpret language. Without the sensory information of imagery, words have no meaning, neither individually nor connected together to form concepts. The single code of language cannot do the job alone. Imagery plays a role in both concrete and abstract language comprehension. 

“Both codes are based on a substrate of imagery, or mental representations. DCT is distinctive from other theories of reading in that processing – activation of memory for decoding sounds and letters or getting meaning from language – can occur between two sensory modalities (verbal and nonverbal), whereas other theories of reading account for one modality (verbal), including reading models for phonics, morphology, and syntactic/semantic artifacts of literacy.

“Clinical research and experience over the last twenty-five years indicate that there is a language comprehension disorder that, unfortunately, is rarely identified. This separate comprehension weakness often undermines the reading process and goes beyond the use of context, phonological processing, word recognition, oral vocabulary, prior knowledge, and background experience. It is a weakness based in the sensory system in creating an imaged gestalt.”

 

Instruction Aligned With Dual Coding Theory

Reading is both an academic skill and a cognitive process. Effective instruction aligns with how the brain processes language and imagery, and Dual Coding Theory supports the growth of strong readers. Three sensory-cognitive functions underlie reading and comprehension.

  • Phoneme Awareness is the ability to perceive the identity, number, and sequence of sounds within words.
  • Symbol imagery is the ability to create mental imagery for sounds and letters within words.
  • Concept imagery is the ability to image a gestalt (whole) for oral and written language.

While individuals may have differences in their abilities, the processes needed for reading are not different. Sensory-cognitive functions can be developed, and this change can improve an individual’s ability to read and comprehend. Reading is a cognitive act that involves both language and imagery.  Effective literacy Instruction aligns with a theory of cognition.

 

Peer-Reviewed Research on Dual Coding Theory and Lindamood-Bell Instruction

Lindamood-Bell regularly collaborates with research institutions to study the efficacy of our approach. In a study conducted by Texas A&M researchers, Lindamood-Bell partnered with Pueblo District 60 in Pueblo, Colorado, to implement an initiative based on a theory of cognition to improve Colorado Student Assessment Program reading scores. 

Students received Seeing Stars, Visualizing and Verbalizing, and Lindamood Phoneme Sequencing instruction to develop symbol imagery, concept imagery, and phonemic awareness. This study investigated the effect of dual coding theory using the Seeing Stars and Visualizing and Verbalizing programs. Instruction was delivered by Pueblo City Schools teachers trained in the programs. Student gains were measured with the state reading test. The results were compared to gains made by students from other, similar schools in Colorado who did not receive Lindamood-Bell instruction. Schools were comparable due to controlling for school size, free and reduced-price lunch, and minority populations. Third-grade results for Title I schools are provided below.

 

Results

The line in the chart above shows the percentage point difference (in percent proficient and advanced on the state reading test) between Pueblo (Lindamood-Bell) schools and comparison schools. By 2003, schools partnering with Lindamood-Bell were 26 percentage points above the average of the comparison schools. The independent evaluators who conducted this research determined that the main effect of Lindamood-Bell instruction was statistically significant (p < .0001). In their published article, they state that “[Pueblo] Title I schools outperformed the average of the remaining comparable Title I schools in the state in an increasingly positive way during the years 1998-2003.” The results of this study support the dual coding theory model of cognition and illustrate that Lindamood-Bell instruction in the Seeing Stars, Visualizing and Verbalizing, and Lindamood Phoneme Sequencing programs lead to improved reading, which is essential to achieving success with school curricula. 

Access the full article, “Effects of a Theoretically Based Large-Scale Reading Intervention in a Multicultural Urban School District,” published in the American Educational Research Journal.

 

Applying Dual Coding Theory: Support for Educators

Our founders’ programs demonstrate how dual coding theory can be applied to teaching. We help students develop symbol imagery, concept imagery, and phonemic awareness, turning theory into measurable results.

For Struggling Readers

For Students with Comprehension Challenges

We invite educators and school administrators to explore how instruction grounded in a theory of cognition can transform literacy outcomes. Discover our teacher workshops and contact us at pd.solutions@lindamoodbell.com to learn more and get started.

Reflecting on 2025 with Gratitude and Hope

Academy, For Schools, Learning Centers, Research

As we approach the close of 2025 and look ahead to our 40th year in 2026, we are filled with appreciation for the students, families, and education professionals who make our mission possible. We are proud to share highlights from a year marked by life-changing learning moments across the globe.

 

Learning Centers

This year, our 43 Learning Centers across the United States, the United Kingdom, and Australia continued to be vibrant hubs of personalized learning.

  • 2,596 students served through in-person, blended, and virtual instruction
  • 312,083.25 total hours of instruction delivered by our dedicated clinicians
  • Thousands of “light-bulb moments” as students strengthened the sensory-cognitive foundations essential for reading, comprehension, and learning

Learn more about our Learning Center instruction.

 

Lindamood-Bell Academy

Our accredited private school continues to offer an empowering path for students needing a fully customized education.

  • 202 students enrolled for the 2025–2026 school year, each supported through a one-to-one or small-group instructional approach tailored to their learning needs

Learn more about Lindamood-Bell Academy enrollment.

 

Lindamood-Bell for Schools

We are honored to partner with educators around the world who are committed to transforming learning in their communities.

  • 1,236 workshop participants from 31 countries
  • 246 teachers received job-embedded professional development
  • 78,108 students reached through school partnerships
  • 26,038 members active in our online professional learning community

Learn more about our workshops and school partnerships.

 

Research & Development 

Through continuous outcome monitoring and data analysis this year we confirmed that students receiving online instruction make the same significant gains as those attending in person. Our sensory-cognitive instruction is effective, whether delivered face-to-face or live online, providing families with flexible options without compromising results. Learn more about our research.

As we celebrate the close of this year, we are filled with gratitude for the trust you place in us and our commitment to helping all individuals learn to their potential. May the holidays bring rest, joy, and connection, and may 2026 be a year of continued inspiration and possibility.

 

Developing Early Literacy Skills: A Parent’s Guide to Supporting Young Readers

Helpful Tips, Kindergarten, Reading

Developing early literacy skills

Developing early literacy skills lays the foundation for confident learning, curiosity, and long-term academic success. From listening and speaking to recognizing sounds, letters, and simple words, the early years are critical for building reading and comprehension skills. At Lindamood-Bell, we focus on the foundational sensory-cognitive skills needed for learning and provide families and educators with tools to help every child succeed.

 

Understanding Early Literacy Skills in Kindergarten and Early Childhood

Early Literacy skills in kindergarten

Today’s kindergarten classrooms may include letter recognition, phonics, listening comprehension, and early math concepts. For many families, the transition to the classroom can raise questions like, “Is my child ready for school?” or “Will they be able to keep up?” These concerns are closely tied to the early literacy experiences children have before they enter formal instruction.

Early literacy development can begin with experiences that connect language, sound, and meaning. Reading simple books together, identifying letters in everyday settings, and talking about stories build comfort and curiosity. These experiences strengthen the sensory-cognitive processes that support reading and comprehension.

 

Key Components of Early Literacy Skills Development

early literacy skills development

Several interconnected skills enable children to make sense of spoken and written language. Learning to read is more than recognizing letters or memorizing words.

Phonemic awareness enables children to auditorily perceive and distinguish the sounds in words.

Orthographic processing, also known as symbol imagery, enables children to auditorily perceive and mentally picture the sounds and letters within words.

Concept imagery helps children create mental images from language for vocabulary and meaning.

Lindamood-Bell’s personalized, one-to-one instruction develops these skills in a structured, step-by-step way, providing a strong foundation for reading, understanding, and enjoying learning. 

 

Early Literacy Milestones: What to Expect Ages 3–8

early literacy milestones

Children typically progress through predictable stages of literacy, though every child’s path is unique:

Ages 3–4: Early literacy skills and emergent reading, including enjoying being read to, recognizing some letters, and showing awareness of rhymes and initial sounds

Ages 5–6: Early literacy development and comprehension growth, including connecting sounds to letters, reading simple words, and stronger listening comprehension

Ages 7–8: Early literacy progression and fluency, including reading more fluently, spelling with increasing accuracy, and summarizing or inferring meaning from stories

While these milestones provide a helpful guide, some children find parts of this progression difficult. Challenges such as trouble recognizing letters, following along during reading, or understanding simple stories can appear at any stage. Early support can make a significant difference.

Early support can make a significant difference. Lindamood-Bell’s  Learning Ability Evaluation can identify the sensory-cognitive processes that may be affecting a child’s early literacy development, providing a clear plan for targeted intervention.

 

The Role of Parents and Caregivers in Early Literacy

how parents can help with early literacy

Parents and caregivers can play a vital role in developing early literacy by using everyday moments to strengthen language skills. During story time, for example, they can highlight key literacy components. While reading a book like Goldilocks and the Three Bears, a parent might pause to ask, “What do you see in this picture?” or “What do you picture will happen next?” Books also introduce new words and ideas, helping children link language to mental images, expand vocabulary, and support imagination and lasting literacy growth.

At home, parents can further encourage learning through simple, playful activities that naturally nurture early literacy:

Reading together: Daily read-alouds of 10–20 minutes with interactive questions, vocabulary highlights, and brief retellings

Sound play: Short activities that focus on rhyming, blending, and segmenting sounds

Print-rich experiences: Label commonly used items, create simple lists, and point out letters in the environment.

Writing and drawing: Opportunities to write names, label pictures, or create short stories

Play-based storytelling: Use toys, puppets, or household items to act out stories.

Decodable practice: Brief sessions with texts that match emerging reading skills

Conversation and background knowledge: Talk about daily experiences, describe observations, and introduce new words.

Parents can also support early literacy by practicing letter and number recognition and exploring resources like our free guide, The 3 Best Activities for Boosting Kindergarten Learning.

Tips for success: Keep activities short and upbeat, rotate materials to maintain interest, and celebrate effort and growth. 

 

Kindergarten BOOST™: Early Literacy Enrichment

early literacy enrichment

Kindergarten BOOST™ at a Lindamood-Bell Learning Center offers high-quality early learning designed to help children thrive. We provide year-round enrichment instruction focused on developing foundational imagery and language skills—phonemic awareness, symbol imagery, and concept imagery—that support reading, spelling, comprehension, and math. Our goal is to help every child feel confident, capable, and ready for school.

Through targeted early literacy instruction, Kindergarten BOOST™ helps children:

  • Connect sounds to symbols for accurate decoding.
  • Develop vocabulary and concept imagery for comprehension.
  • Build confidence in reading, writing, and math.

What makes Kindergarten BOOST™ unique:

  • Research-validated instruction designed to develop the skills that matter most
  • Individualized approach and flexible scheduling
  • One-to-one lessons with caring instructors who make learning fun

Instruction includes letter names and sounds, sounding out words for reading, sight word reading, printing letters and numbers, listening comprehension, communication skills, counting, addition and subtraction, pencil and scissors work, and color and shape recognition. Each child starts with an age-appropriate Learning Ability Evaluation to ensure the right level of support. Contact your nearest Lindamood-Bell location to learn more about our live online or in-person Kindergarten BOOST™ program for your student.

 

Supporting Early Literacy at Home and in School

supporting early literacy

Whether your child is just beginning to explore letters and sounds or is already in school, personalized support can make a real difference. Lindamood-Bell provides instruction designed to develop and strengthen the sensory-cognitive foundations for reading and comprehension.

Families can schedule a Learning Ability Evaluation for individualized guidance and begin instruction tailored to each child’s needs. Developing early literacy skills is a journey that begins with curiosity, connection, and communication. Learning support like our Kindergarten BOOST™ can help your child feel excited about school.

Our sensory-cognitive instruction targets the core processes of reading and comprehension to create measurable, lasting gains. With consistent support, children can progress from developing skills to fluent and meaningful engagement with text. Lindamood-Bell is proud to partner with families and educators to make the magic of learning happen from the very start.

Hear one family’s story of success: a mother celebrates as her son goes from not knowing his alphabet to catching up with his classmates in just a few weeks. Watch here:

 

Lindamood-Bell is a trusted leader in early literacy development. We are here to partner with you every step of the way, ensuring strong outcomes now and for the years ahead. Call us at 800-300-1818 or contact us today.

Why is My Child Struggling with Math?

Dyscalculia, Learning Centers, Math

struggling in math

If your child struggles with math, you’re not alone. Many children find math difficult, but for some, these challenges are especially persistent and can impact their confidence and performance in school. At Lindamood-Bell, we understand that math challenges are often tied to how individuals process numbers, which requires specific cognitive skills. While each child’s struggles may be unique, here we’ll help you understand the essentials:

  • Why children may struggle with math
  • Key signs that a child might be having difficulty with math
  • Ways parents can support a child facing math challenges

Together, let’s help your child find success in math instead of frustration.

 

Building Confidence and Skills in Math

build confidence for children struggling in math

It’s common for parents and teachers to feel concerned when a student begins to fall behind in math. Whether due to learning challenges or school disruptions, math struggles can impact a child’s confidence and academic success. At Lindamood-Bell, we’re here to help students overcome these challenges, build a solid foundation in math, and grow their confidence.

Our personalized math instruction supports students of all ages, helping them catch up or get ahead. Focusing on both foundational skills and complex math concepts, our approach encourages students to visualize and verbalize the processes behind mathematical thinking, leading to deeper understanding and long-term success.

 

Identifying Math Struggles

Identify math struggles

Struggling with mathematics can indicate weak concept imagery. When individuals have difficulty visualizing numbers and abstract concepts, it can hinder their understanding of math.

Weak concept imagery can make it challenging for students to create a mental picture of numerals and math concepts. Without this ability, it can then be difficult to acquire basic computation skills and higher-level skills like word problems.

Recognizing math struggles in your child is the crucial first step toward helping them overcome these challenges. Here are some signs that may indicate your child is struggling with math:

 

Difficulty Remembering Math Facts      

Some children struggle to remember basic math facts, like addition or multiplication tables, even after repeated practice. This can make it challenging to move on to more complex topics, as foundational math facts are often necessary for problem-solving.

Struggles with Computation      

Basic calculations can be difficult for some children, and they may often make simple errors in addition, subtraction, multiplication, or division. These mistakes can make math seem more challenging and cause frustration over time.

Overwhelm with Word Problems      

Word problems often combine math with reading comprehension, requiring students to extract relevant information and decide on the correct operations to use. This can be particularly overwhelming for children who struggle to integrate these skills.

Difficulty Grasping New Concepts      

Concepts like fractions, percentages, and decimals can be hard to understand without a strong foundation in earlier math skills. For students who have gaps in their math knowledge, learning new concepts can feel like an uphill battle.

 

If you observe any of these signs in your child, it is essential to provide the necessary support and intervention to help them overcome their math struggles. At Lindamood-Bell, we offer evidence-based programs that can help your child develop the necessary skills and strategies to succeed in math. We provide individualized instruction tailored to your child’s unique needs, helping them build confidence and achieve academic success. 

 

Early Intervention for Math Struggles

help for math struggles

Early intervention is crucial when it comes to addressing math struggles. Math is a subject that builds on previous concepts, so gaps in understanding can significantly impact a child’s future learning. Some children may learn or memorize math concepts without fully understanding them, leading to difficulties applying these concepts to future studies or real-life situations.

If you’ve noticed your child is struggling with math, it may be time to seek help and assess their learning skills. Early intervention can bridge the learning gap and help your child develop a solid foundation in math.

Lindamood-Bell math instruction starts with a comprehensive Learning Ability Evaluation, which helps us create a customized instruction plan that addresses each child’s specific needs and builds a strong mathematical foundation. 

 

What Sets Lindamood-Bell’s Math Instruction Apart?

instruction for children struggling with math

Our distinctive On Cloud Nine®: Visualizing and Verbalizing for Math program seamlessly integrates imagery with language to enhance math skills. This evidence-based approach allows students to connect math concepts with verbal reasoning, enabling them not only to solve problems but also to deeply understand the processes that underlie them. By emphasizing both mathematical reasoning and computation, we establish a robust foundation for math learning.

Key Areas of Focus:

  • Mastering Essential Math Facts
    By developing the imagery-language foundation, we help students learn how to visualize and retain crucial math facts, ensuring they can confidently recall and apply this knowledge in various contexts.
  • Enhancing Problem-Solving Skills
    By combining concept and numerical imagery with language, our program enhances students’ ability to tackle word problems with clarity and confidence, equipping them with effective strategies for success.
  • Deepening Understanding of Math Concepts
    Our approach goes beyond mere computation, fostering a genuine understanding of the “why” behind math concepts. This deeper comprehension lays a strong groundwork for future learning and application.

At Lindamood-Bell, students receive tailored support that addresses their unique needs and learning styles. Our mission is to help each student succeed in math while developing the skills and confidence to excel in the classroom and beyond.

 

Math Instruction at Lindamood-Bell

instruction for math issues

Recognizing that many children find math challenging, we offer individualized instruction plans focused on building the imagery-language foundation necessary for grasping core math concepts before applying that foundation to the curriculum. Our approach to math is based on research and extensive experience with struggling learners. By addressing the underlying causes of math difficulties, we empower students to cultivate the skills and strategies required for success.

The On Cloud Nine Math Program emphasizes cognitive processing skills. By integrating imagery and language, we help students form a clear understanding of math concepts, moving beyond rote memorization. Our program develops a “mental number line,” allowing students to visualize numbers, operations, and concepts, strengthening their problem-solving abilities.

By focusing on both comprehension and computation, we equip students with the cognitive skills necessary for math success. Our instruction is customized to meet each student’s individual learning needs, empowering them to approach math with newfound confidence.

 

From Math Struggles to Lifelong Success

success for children struggling with math

Finding support for math struggles can help build a foundation of learning for life. Many parents wonder why math is so hard for their children and how they can help. At Lindamood-Bell, we understand the challenges that students with math weaknesses face and the impact they can have on their overall academic journey.

One of our success stories is Bryson, a student who had always dreamed of becoming an engineer. However, he struggled with math and felt discouraged by his constant difficulties in the subject. His parents decided to seek support from Lindamood-Bell, and it made all the difference. With Lindamood-Bell’s help, Bryson not only achieved his goal of becoming an engineer but also developed a lifelong love for math. He now sees math as an exciting challenge rather than an insurmountable obstacle and is thriving in college.

 

 

Through our evidence-based programs and personalized instruction, Bryson developed the skills and confidence he needed to excel in math. Our expert instructors used our On Cloud Nine: Visualizing and Verbalizing for Math program to help him improve his conceptual understanding and problem-solving abilities. 

If your child is struggling with math, it’s never too early or too late to seek support. Our evidence-based approach, backed by years of research, can help your child build a strong foundation in math and set them up for long-term success in learning. 

Whether your child is just beginning to show signs of difficulty with math or has been struggling for years, Lindamood-Bell offers the support and structure needed to make meaningful progress. Contact us today to learn more about how Lindamood-Bell can make a difference in your child’s math journey. 

Get in touch or call 800-300-1818 to get started at Lindamood-Bell. 

Effective Reading Comprehension Strategies for Student Success

Comprehension, For Schools, Professional Development

 

Reading comprehension requires the ability to understand and interpret text including using key skills like memory, vocabulary, and critical thinking. Some traditional teaching methods may address these areas, however, Lindamood-Bell’s unique sensory-cognitive approach focuses on explicitly developing concept imagery—the ability to create an imaged gestalt (whole) from oral and written language. Concept imagery is the foundation for reading comprehension and critical thinking for individuals of all ages. The following sections offer practical tips for educators working with students at all levels and provide a foundation for understanding weak reading comprehension, including identifying its underlying causes. 

 

Understanding Reading Comprehension

Reading comprehension involves actively engaging with written material, making connections, and deriving meaning from the text. This skill is crucial for academic success and lifelong learning. To comprehend what we read, one must have adequate concept imagery—the ability to create an imaged whole from written language. At Lindamood-Bell, we provide evidence-based instruction that develops this imagery-language foundation. According to Nanci Bell, co-founder of Lindamood-Bell and author of the Visualizing and Verbalizing® (V/V®) program, “Clinical research and experience over the last 30 years indicate there is a separate comprehension weakness that is rarely identified. This weakness often undermines the reading process…It is weakness, based in the sensory system, in creating an imaged gestalt.”

Students with weak reading comprehension may be able to decode words accurately but cannot understand what they read. This weakness also affects oral language comprehension. For example, students may struggle with following directions and have poor short-term and long-term memory skills. Unfortunately, these weaknesses can come across as a lack of effort or motivation on the part of the student and may go undiagnosed. 

Difficulty creating an imagined gestalt–weak concept imagery– causes individuals to get only “parts” of information they read or hear, not the whole. Individuals of all ages may experience the symptoms of a weakness in concept imagery. This causes weakness in:

  • Reading comprehension
  • Listening comprehension
  • Critical thinking and problem-solving
  • Following directions
  • Memory
  • Oral language expression
  • Written language expression
  • Grasping humor
  • Interpreting social situations
  • Understanding cause and effect

The Visualizing and Verbalizing program develops concept imagery—the ability to create an imagined or imaged gestalt from language—as a basis for comprehension and higher-order thinking. The development of concept imagery improves reading and listening comprehension, memory, oral vocabulary, critical thinking, and writing.

 

Eight Tips to Enhance Reading Comprehension Strategies

reading comprehension strategies for teachers

Have you helped students improve their phonemic awareness, phonics, and word recognition, only to see them struggle with reading comprehension? Many students experience reading comprehension weakness despite having adequate decoding and vocabulary skills. While educators often implement various comprehension strategies, they may sense something crucial is still missing.

Lindamood-Bell’s sensory-cognitive approach to language and literacy addresses this gap by focusing on concept imagery. This process, known as imaging a gestalt, forms the foundation for reading and oral language comprehension.

The National Reading Panel Report (2000) identifies imagery as a research-based strategy for improving comprehension. Applying concept imagery to reading comprehension helps students build mental models that support higher-order thinking skills like identifying the main idea, making inferences, drawing conclusions, predicting outcomes, and evaluating information. Effective strategies for developing these mental models include checking for vocabulary, activating background knowledge, and questioning students about what the words they read make them picture.

These eight tips will help you apply concept imagery to reading comprehension.

  1. Introduce explicit instruction to develop concept imagery.
  2. Pre-check unknown vocabulary. 
  3. Activate background knowledge. 
  4. Monitor for comprehension. 
  5. Ask students for a word summary. 
  6. Check for imagery and understanding. 
  7. Use imagery for higher-order thinking questions.  
  8. Model the thinking process.

 

Introduce Explicit Instruction to Develop Concept Imagery

Improving reading comprehension starts with explicit instruction in concept imagery—teaching students how to create mental images of the language they read. Often, we assume that students can create mental images when this is not the case.

Introduce the idea of imagery or visualization with a student-friendly term like “picture.” Describe how words on the page turn into pictures in their mind. When a student reads silently or aloud, ask them what the words make them picture. Be specific. For example, ask, “What did you picture for the skyscraper?” or “What do you picture for the people signing the Declaration of Independence?” As Nanci Bell states in the VV® program manual, for many students, explicit instruction will need to start from the one-word level, to “develop the student’s ability to create mental representations for a word, thus laying the foundation for more language: a phrase, a sentence, or a paragraph.” 

 

Pre-check Unknown Vocabulary 

Scan the text and identify key terms that may be challenging or unknown. Ask your students if they have a picture for those words. Use an age-appropriate dictionary to teach them the meanings. Help students develop a specific, concrete mental image for each word by providing them with choices, such as “Is the man’s sweater blue or brown,” or “Do you picture a young woman or an old woman?”

At Lindamood-Bell, we recognize the importance of vocabulary in reading comprehension. Our evidence-based program, Visualizing and Verbalizing, develops vocabulary and reading comprehension using concept imagery techniques.

 

Activating Prior Knowledge

Prior knowledge plays a role in reading comprehension. It refers to the information and experiences readers already possess about a topic. Activating prior knowledge helps students make connections between what is known and new information, enhancing understanding. 

Check for imagery and understanding of words or concepts that may activate prior knowledge. For example, if students are reading a story that takes place on a deserted island, you could ask your students if they have ever been to an island, do they know what to picture for an island, and how they can picture it as deserted. Again, ask questions that include choices. For example, “Do you picture the island covered in sand or rocks?” 

 

Monitoring Comprehension

Monitoring comprehension is a crucial skill for effective reading. It involves being aware of one’s understanding of the text and actively taking steps to clarify and improve comprehension. 

To help develop this skill, first have students read text aloud so you can also monitor for decoding accuracy and fluency. Prompt students to actively check they are visualizing the text as they read. If they miscall a word that affects the meaning, your first question should be, “What does that make you picture? Does that make sense?”

Readers can imagine characters, settings, and events, connecting with the text on a deeper level.

 

Ask Students for a Word Summary 

After reading the text, ask the student to give a verbal summary in their own words (a word summary). This will be your first assessment of whether they recalled the relevant details and sequence and understood the passage. Students may initially struggle with accurate word summaries, perhaps only giving a few details, but improve with practice and more attention to their imagery. As they become more skilled with verbal word summaries, extend the lesson to written word summaries.

 

Check for Imagery and Understanding 

Teach students to visualize the text and create mental images. This technique enhances reading comprehension and retention of information. Ask students questions about key information from the text. Teach students to actively check their imagery and question them for important details to make their image concrete, such as size, shape, color, movement, and background. 

 

Use Imagery for Higher-Order Thinking Questions  

Prompt students to use their imagery as a foundation for higher-order thinking skills. Higher-order thinking (HOT) questions require a more complex understanding of the text beyond basic facts and details. These include Main Idea, Inference, Conclusion, and Prediction. Prompt students to use their imagery as a foundation for higher-order thinking beginning with the main idea. For example, “Based on what you pictured, what do you think the main idea is?”

 

Model the Thinking Process

Demonstrate effective reading comprehension strategies by thinking aloud while reading. This allows learners to observe and internalize the thinking process.

Provide examples from your imagery, especially for more complex and abstract text. When possible, use new vocabulary to increase your students’ word knowledge. Start your example with the words, “I pictured. . .”

To learn more about using imagery to enhance comprehension strategies, access our Toolkit for Educators to download our guide, “8 Tips to Enhance Comprehension Strategies.”

 

Case Study: Improving Reading Comprehension for Elementary School Students 

improving reading comprehension strategies for elementary school students

Students who struggle with comprehension benefit from the Visualizing and Verbalizing (VV) for Language Comprehension and Thinking program. The program provides explicit and systematic instruction for developing concept imagery and has been shown to significantly improve reading and listening comprehension. Fort Smith Public Schools in Fort Smith, Arkansas serves a large percentage of students who are at risk of reading failure. During the 2020-21 school year, Fort Smith Public Schools implemented Lindamood-Bell instruction to address the specific needs of this student population. A group of 97 students received an average of 52 hours of Visualizing and Verbalizing instruction. Instruction was delivered by Fort Smith Public Schools’ teachers who received professional development in the programs. Student gains were measured with a battery of assessments.

comprehension instruction results for elementary school students

RESULTS: On average, Visualizing and Verbalizing students achieved statistically significant, large standard score gains in Reading Comprehension. The percentile growth shows these students moved from below the normal range into the normal range (25th-75th percentile). The results of this study illustrate that instruction in the Visualizing and Verbalizing program developed by Lindamood-Bell’s founders leads to improved comprehension, which is essential to achieving success with school curricula.

 PROFILE: Reading Comprehension

Number of Students: 97
Average Age: 12.1
Average Hours of Instruction: 52
Lindamood-Bell Programs Implemented: Visualizing and Verbalizing

Outcome Measures:
• Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT)-4th/5th (vocabulary)
• Gray Oral Reading Tests (GORT)-4th (accuracy, fluency, comprehension)

View more results and case studies of our work with schools.

 

Educator Insights

Listen to educators from Fort Smith Public Schools share how Lindamood-Bell Professional Development has helped them make a meaningful impact on their students’ learning.

 

Support for Educators

workshops for reading comprehension strategies

Ready to go beyond the tips in this blog? Lindamood-Bell proudly offers educators professional development in our highly successful and proven programs. Our workshops, available both in person and live online, provide in-depth training to enhance instructional practices and improve student outcomes. Schools can partner with us for in-services, job-embedded coaching, and comprehensive school partnerships.

Contact Lindamood-Bell today. Call us at 800-233-1819 OR Click here to schedule a brief consultation with a program expert to discuss your intervention needs. We are excited to teach you how to improve your students’ reading comprehension and unlock their full potential!

Understanding Reading Fluency for All Students

For Schools, Professional Development, Reading

 

Reading fluency is essential for making reading both enjoyable and meaningful. Fluent reading begins with a strong foundation in decoding and vocabulary. When students develop and strengthen the sensory-cognitive skills that are the foundation of reading fluency, they read more accurately and build confidence in their abilities.

Lindamood-Bell provides educators with evidence-based instructional programs that have been proven to develop and strengthen reading fluency. Our approach focuses on building symbol imagery. Symbol imagery is the ability to visualize sounds and letters in words and is the basis for orthographic awareness, phonemic awareness, word attack, word recognition, spelling, and contextual reading fluency.  

 

Understanding Reading Fluency

Reading fluency refers to reading text accurately, smoothly, and with expression that reflects meaning. It includes three essential elements: accuracy, rate, and prosody, which is the natural rhythm and tone of reading. Strong reading fluency enables students to focus on understanding the text rather than decoding each word, increasing motivation and building confidence.

Challenges in reading fluency often come from weak symbol imagery and limited word recognition. Symbol imagery is the foundation of accurate and efficient decoding. By developing the ability to visualize letters and words in their minds, students strengthen word recognition, improve accuracy, and build the automaticity needed for fluent reading.

 

Symbol Imagery: The Foundation of Reading Fluency

Reading fluency builds on a strong foundation in decoding and symbol imagery. The Seeing Stars® program, developed by Nanci Bell, helps students develop these skills by focusing on symbol imagery, which involves the ability to auditorily perceive the sounds and mentally image the letters in words. This processing supports the development of word attack, word recognition, spelling, reading accuracy and fluency, and reading comprehension. Nanci Bell explains, “The automaticity of symbol imagery allows for rapid processing and quick self-correction…and because the processing is not laborious and time consuming, an individual’s reading fluency is maintained and guessing is reduced.”

Seeing Stars develops symbol imagery through structured, multi-sensory exercises, including air writing and other techniques. These activities help students:

  • Improve Word Attack and Word Recognition: Students can identify words more quickly and automatically, reducing the effort needed to decode. 
  • Develop Automaticity: As word recognition becomes automatic, reading fluency naturally improves. 
  • Enhance Accuracy: Accurate decoding is reinforced through targeted activities, creating a strong foundation for fluent reading.

Teachers can support reading fluency using strategies aligned with Seeing Stars:

  • Develop symbol imagery: Engage students in activities that help them visualize the sounds and letters in words and recognize spelling patterns. Multi-sensory exercises like air writing strengthen the mental connection between letters, sounds, and words. 
  • Guided oral reading: Have students read short, meaningful passages aloud while focusing on accuracy and expression. This practice reinforces symbol imagery and builds fluency through repeated, supported practice. 
  • Provide immediate feedback: Reinforce accurate decoding and expressive reading through structured feedback. Seeing Stars lessons provide consistent, guided practice to support steady growth in reading fluency.

These strategies help students practice reading fluency with intention and confidence. The focus is on understanding and connecting with the text, rather than just reading faster.

 

Incorporating Fluency Strategies in the Classroom

Classrooms that foster reading fluency provide students with structured, meaningful opportunities to practice decoding and build strong symbol imagery. Integrating Seeing Stars-based strategies into daily lessons helps students develop accurate, expressive, and confident reading habits.

  • Guided reading sessions: Use short passages that give students opportunities to recognize sight words and strengthen decoding skills. Practicing symbol imagery in this way helps students read more automatically, improving accuracy and overall fluency.
  • Expressive reading practice: Have students read aloud, focusing on clarity and rhythm. 
  • Positive feedback and celebration: Recognize progress in decoding accuracy, expression, and fluency. Providing immediate feedback and celebrating achievements motivates students to continue strengthening their reading fluency.

By consistently connecting symbol imagery to reading practice, classrooms create an environment where students build fluency with purpose, confidence, and understanding.

 

Supporting Diverse Learners with Symbol Imagery Instruction

Students can develop reading fluency when instruction targets the skills that underlie fluent reading. Students with dyslexia or other reading challenges benefit from approaches that strengthen symbol imagery for decoding.

At Lindamood-Bell, Seeing Stars provides multi-sensory instruction that engages visual, auditory, and kinesthetic pathways. Students practice connecting letters to sounds, visualizing words, and forming mental images of letters and words. This structured, evidence-based approach improves word recognition, accuracy, and automaticity, helping students read smoothly and expressively.

 

Measuring Progress in Reading Fluency

Tracking student progress ensures that reading fluency instruction is effective and responsive. Teachers can use formal assessments, informal observations, and guided oral reading to evaluate the accuracy, rate, and expression of students’ reading skills. Assessments provide insight into where support is needed. Setting achievable goals and celebrating progress keep students motivated and ensure steady growth in reading fluency.

 

Professional Development Workshops at Lindamood-Bell

Lindamood-Bell is committed to equipping educators with effective reading fluency techniques through our interactive, online professional development workshops. These workshops are grounded in evidence-based practices, helping teachers create inclusive learning environments that cater to diverse needs. Our Seeing Stars workshop provides instructional tools for building decoding, symbol imagery, and expressive reading skills.

Educators learn to strengthen symbol imagery for students, laying the foundation for fluent, confident reading. Guided by experienced instructors, participants develop strategies to create inclusive and engaging classrooms where all students can cultivate reading fluency and a lifelong love of reading.

To learn more about how Lindamood-Bell can support literacy instruction, explore our professional development opportunities, and discover how research-based strategies can enhance reading fluency for every student.

Get in touch to find out how Lindamood-Bell can transform your approach to reading instruction and improve student learning experiences.