All posts by Julie Gisbon

Student Success Stories: When Learning Begins to Change

Community, Learning Centers

Watching your child struggle with learning can be hard, and it’s not always easy to know what kind of help will actually make a difference.

At Lindamood-Bell, we are committed to providing individuals with the opportunity to learn to their potential. Our instruction is personalized to address each student’s learning needs, with the goal of developing not only reading and comprehension skills but also the confidence that comes when learning feels possible.

For students and families around the world, that learning has been life-changing.

These are a few of their stories.

 

“I Was Learning to See for the First Time”

São Paulo, Brazil

When second-grader “A.” arrived at Lindamood-Bell’s São Paulo Summer Learning Camp, reading was difficult. Attending a dual-language school, he was shy, easily overwhelmed, and struggling to make sense of words on the page.

Then something began to change. A. compared his Lindamood-Bell experience to the Brazilian children’s book O Menino que Aprendeu A Ver—The Boy Who Learned to See. In the story, letters that initially look like meaningless squiggles gradually become recognizable as a child learns to read. A. told his father that at Lindamood-Bell, he was “learning to see for the first time.”

After 76 hours of personalized instruction, testing showed growth in word attack, symbol imagery, sight words, and oral reading.

But the numbers told only part of A.’s story. Reading felt easier. And a child who had arrived shy and overwhelmed was beginning to experience what it felt like to approach reading with greater confidence.

 

“This Child Is Confident and Happy”

Mobile, Alabama

Seven-year-old Charlotte worked hard during her summer at Lindamood-Bell. She completed 79 hours of Seeing Stars® instruction and demonstrated improvement in word attack, word recognition, paragraph reading accuracy, and reading comprehension.

Her grandmother saw another kind of growth taking place, too.

“She traveled miles with you this summer in knowledge and confidence-building. It wasn’t the easiest summer, but it was worth every bit of the effort.”

Then came the update that mattered perhaps most of all.

As Charlotte began her new school year, her grandmother shared:

“Bottom line, this child is confident and happy.”

For Charlotte’s family, progress wasn’t simply about stronger reading skills. It was about watching a child begin a new school year feeling more capable and confident in herself.

 

Small Moments That Changed Everything

Sydney, Australia

For Jett, at Lindamood-Bell’s Sydney Learning Center, success meant beginning to believe in himself.

He arrived as a third-grade non-reader who lacked confidence after years of struggling. After just a few weeks of Seeing Stars® instruction, his father could already see a change.

“It’s incredible to see how much his belief in himself is changing after only a few weeks here.”

 

“His Reading Is Truly Night and Day”

Elmhurst, Illinois

For nine-year-old Matty’s mother, finding the right learning support meant finding people who understood more than just what academic skills her son needed to develop.

They needed to understand Matty.

After instruction in Seeing Stars and Visualizing and Verbalizing, Matty demonstrated substantial improvement across measures of word attack, word recognition, paragraph reading accuracy, and reading comprehension.

His mother described the change simply:

“His reading has changed in a way that is truly night and day.”

But what moved her most went beyond reading.

She shared that Matty’s instructors took the time to understand how he learns, what motivates him, where he becomes frustrated, and what he needs to be successful.

“They have gone above and beyond what I ever expected from an educational program. I genuinely don’t think we would be where we are today without either one of them.”

Her experience left her with a powerful perspective on what can happen when a child receives the right support:

“I have seen firsthand what the right intervention, combined with the right people, can do for a child.”

For Matty, personalized learning wasn’t simply instruction designed around a test score. It meant being known, understood, and taught in a way that addressed his individual needs.

 

“A Happy Boy, Empowered by His Own Abilities”

Notting Hill, London

When “S.” came to Lindamood-Bell’s Notting Hill Learning Center, he faced significant challenges in reading and comprehension.

His personalized learning journey included both in-person and live-online instruction throughout the school year. Following Seeing Stars® and Visualizing and Verbalizing® instruction, S. demonstrated marked improvement in his reading skills.

His family saw something else changing, too.

At the end of his instruction, his mother wrote:

“You have made such a great difference in S.’s life, not only academically but emotionally and personally as well.”

She thanked his instructors for the effort, dedication, kindness, understanding, and care they had shown throughout his journey.

The Learning Center team captured his transformation in just a few words. S. had become “a happy boy, empowered by his own abilities.”

Sometimes the most meaningful measure of progress is not simply what a child can do—but what that child has begun to believe about himself.

 

“Absolutely Transformative”

San Luis Obispo, California

For Hailey’s family, the first step was understanding why learning was difficult.

At Lindamood-Bell’s Flagship Learning Center in San Luis Obispo, an initial consultation identified specific areas where Hailey needed support. Her family then committed to an intensive summer program designed around those needs.

Hailey completed 131 hours of Visualizing and Verbalizing® instruction. Her reading comprehension improved from the 75th percentile to above the 99th percentile.

But her parents saw a transformation beyond the test scores.

They watched Hailey become better able to understand complex topics, identify important information, remember what she learned, and communicate her understanding.

They described the change as “absolutely transformative.”

For her parents, understanding Hailey’s individual learning needs was critical.

“We consider ourselves fortunate that Lindamood-Bell was able to diagnose the specific areas of learning where Hailey was struggling, and then to develop a personalized curriculum to develop those pieces slowly, methodically, and concretely over time.”

Perhaps most meaningful was what happened as learning became easier.

“She has been able to unlock so many other pieces of her potential, and she actually enjoyed the process of doing so.”

For Hailey, progress wasn’t only about becoming a stronger learner. It was about discovering that learning itself could feel different.

 

Every Milestone Is Meaningful

For other students, progress showed up in moments that might seem small—but meant everything to their families. Here are a few real examples:

– After Visualizing and Verbalizing® instruction, Alexa’s father noticed that she was better able to follow conversations and interact with her cousins.

– Six-year-old Emi began participating in class without prompting.

– Declan, who began instruction as a non-reader, reached a milestone his family won’t soon forget. He typed: “I love you, Dad.” And when his father responded, Declan was able to read the reply.

Different students. Different challenges. Different milestones.

Each was meaningful because it represented something that had once been difficult becoming possible.

 

Wonder What’s Possible for Your Child?

If your child is struggling with reading, comprehension, or learning, the first step is understanding their learning needs.

Get in Touch or find your local Learning Center to talk with our team and learn how personalized instruction may support your child.

When Should Kids Start Reading? Age Guidelines, Readiness Signs, and How to Help

Helpful Tips, Learning Centers, Reading

In this guide, we’ll explore typical reading milestones, signs of reading readiness, and ways families and educators can support reading development while drawing on Lindamood-Bell’s decades of experience developing the sensory-cognitive skills that underlie literacy.

Key Takeaways

  • Many children begin learning to read during kindergarten and first grade, with fluency and comprehension continuing to develop throughout the early elementary years.
  • Interest in books, letter-sound knowledge, helps prepare children to become successful readers.
  • Children benefit from daily read-alouds, rich conversation, explicit, systematic instruction, and opportunities to develop the sensory-cognitive skills that support reading and comprehension.
  • If progress slows or reading becomes frustrating, a comprehensive learning evaluation can identify underlying skill needs and guide individualized instruction.

 

Typical Reading Milestones by Age

Infants and Toddlers (Birth to Age 3):

The earliest foundations for reading develop long before children recognize letters or words. Babies enjoy being read to, learn that books are meaningful, and begin connecting spoken language with pictures and experiences.

As toddlers grow, they may begin pointing to pictures, turning pages, naming familiar objects, and participating in simple stories. These early experiences lay the groundwork for future reading success.

 

Preschool and Kindergarten (Ages 3–5):

During the preschool years, children may begin to recognize letters, especially those in their own names. 

Children also learn important print concepts, such as holding books correctly, following text from left to right, and understanding that written words represent spoken language.

As kindergarten progresses, children may begin connecting letters to sounds, blending simple sounds, and reading basic decodable words such as cat and map. 

 

Early Elementary (Ages 6-8):

During first and second grade, most children expand their decoding skills to longer words, recognize an increasing number of high-frequency words, and read with greater accuracy and fluency.

At the same time, vocabulary and language comprehension continue to grow. Children become better at retelling stories, answering questions, making predictions, and drawing simple conclusions from what they read.

While these milestones are common, some children may reach them earlier and other children may not reach these milestones by early elementary ages. Others benefit from additional support to develop the underlying skills that make reading easier. From this point, students need explicit instruction to be proficient readers.

 

Signs a Child Is Ready to Learn to Read

In the early years, look for signs that your child is developing the skills needed for successful reading.

Interest in Books and Print

Children who are becoming ready to read often:

  • Ask to be read to frequently
  • Pretend to read favorite books
  • Point to words or pictures while listening
  • Notice letters on signs, packaging, or clothing
  • Recognize letters in their own name

These behaviors show growing curiosity about how written language works.

 

Foundational Reading Skills

Children preparing to read may be developing important foundational abilities, including:

  • Phonemic awareness, the ability to auditorily perceive and mentally image the sounds and letters within words
  • Letter-sound knowledge, connecting common letters with their corresponding sounds
  • Print awareness, understanding where reading begins on a page, and that print carries meaning
  • Concept imagery, the ability to create an imaged gestalt (whole)  from oral and written language
  • Symbol imagery, creating mental representations of letters and words that support accurate decoding and spelling

These skills provide the foundation for reading words accurately and efficiently.

 

When to Consider an Evaluation

Children develop at different rates, but it may be helpful to seek additional support if your child:

  • Has difficulty remembering letter names and sounds after repeated exposure
  • Struggles to hear or manipulate sounds in words
  • Frequently guesses at words instead of sounding them out
  • Avoids reading because it feels frustrating
  • Reads words accurately but has difficulty remembering or explaining what was read
  • Continues to struggle with decoding or fluency beyond early first grade

A comprehensive Learning Ability Evaluation identifies a student’s strengths and weaknesses that may affect performance in reading, comprehension, and math.

 

How Parents and Teachers Can Support Early Reading

Everyday Reading and Conversation 

Reading aloud every day remains one of the most effective ways to support literacy development. However, reading aloud doesn’t teach decoding and phonics skills, which are essential for learning to reading independently. It’s a powerful complement to systematic phonics instruction, not a substitute for it.

As you read together:

  • Pause to discuss book illustrations.
  • Ask what your child thinks might happen next.
  • Encourage them to describe favorite characters or events.
  • Introduce new vocabulary during.

Children often show growing comprehension when they begin predicting story events, remembering details, or making connections between stories and their own lives.

 

Explicit, Systematic Instruction 

Children benefit from explicit, systematic instruction that clearly connects sounds, letters, and words while developing the sensory-cognitive skills that support reading. Activities that develop symbol imagery help children create mental representations of letters and words for accurate decoding, fluent reading, and spelling.

To strengthen comprehension, encourage children to create mental images as they listen and read, discuss story structure, preview unfamiliar vocabulary, and talk about characters’ actions and ideas. Developing concept imagery supports understanding, memory, and higher-order thinking.

 

Environment and Interest 

Provide books that match your child’s interests and current reading level, and make reading an enjoyable part of daily life. Allow children to choose books that excite them. Positive reading experiences help build confidence and encourage children to see themselves as capable readers.

 

What to Do If Reading Is Delayed or Challenging

Every child learns at a different pace, and occasional struggles are a normal part of learning. However, persistent reading difficulties may indicate that a child needs additional support to develop the underlying skills that make reading successful.

Common Signs of Reading Difficulty

A family history of reading difficulties may also increase the likelihood that a child will benefit from additional support.

 

Evidence-Based Intervention

The most effective intervention begins with understanding why a child is struggling.

A comprehensive learning ability evaluation can identify strengths and needs in areas such as phonemic awareness, symbol imagery, decoding, fluency, vocabulary, language comprehension, and concept imagery. This information provides a clear picture of the sensory-cognitive processes affecting reading development and helps guide individualized instruction.

Effective intervention is explicit, systematic, and matched to each student’s learning needs. Rather than simply increasing practice, instruction should develop the underlying sensory-cognitive skills that support lasting improvements in reading.

At Lindamood-Bell, instruction focuses on developing phonemic awareness, symbol imagery, and concept imagery to strengthen word recognition, spelling, reading fluency, vocabulary, and language comprehension.

 

Schools and Specialists

Regular communication with classroom teachers, reading specialists, and other professionals helps ensure that instruction is aligned with each child’s needs. Ask about the instructional program being used, instructional goals, how progress will be measured, and how skills can be reinforced at home.

As students grow, their progress should be monitored regularly so instruction can be adjusted to their individual needs.

 

Quick Reference: Reading Readiness and Support

Age/Stage What You Might See How to Help
Birth–3 Interest in books, pointing to pictures, naming familiar objects

 

 Read and sing every day, talk during routines, introduce new vocabulary, encourage conversation
Ages 3–5 Letter recognition, rhyming, noticing beginning sounds, interest in print

 

 Play sound games, connect letters to sounds, read together daily, encourage storytelling
Ages 6-8 Decoding longer words, growing fluency, increasing comprehension

 

 Provide explicit, systematic reading instruction, develop symbol imagery, preview vocabulary, discuss stories, encourage mental imagery while reading
Anytime concerns arise Difficulty with sounds, guessing at words, slow reading, frustration, weak comprehension

 

 Schedule a comprehensive Learning Ability Evaluation and provide individualized instruction that develops phonemic awareness, symbol imagery, and concept imagery

 

Bottom Line: When Should Kids Start Reading?

Most children begin learning to read during kindergarten and first grade, but readiness varies from child to child. Rather than focusing on a specific birthday or comparing your child with classmates, pay attention to the foundational skills that support reading, including curiosity about books, awareness of sounds in words, and growing letter-sound knowledge. Further, if your child shows frustration, avoidance, or a drop in confidence around reading tasks, that’s worth paying attention to, as it can be a sign they need additional support.

Support reading development through daily read-alouds, rich conversation, and explicit, systematic instruction that develops the sensory-cognitive skills underlying reading. Strong symbol imagery supports accurate word recognition, spelling, and fluent reading, while concept imagery strengthens language comprehension, memory, and critical thinking.

If progress slows or reading becomes consistently frustrating, it is important to understand the underlying cause rather than simply increasing practice. A Learning Ability Evaluation can identify the sensory-cognitive skills affecting reading development and provide a clear, individualized plan for instruction.

Lindamood-Bell’s evidence-based instruction develops the sensory-cognitive skills that support reading, comprehension, and learning. Programs such as Seeing Stars® develop symbol imagery for accurate decoding, spelling, and fluent reading, while Visualizing and Verbalizing® develops concept imagery for language comprehension and higher-order thinking. By strengthening these foundational skills, students build the confidence and abilities they need to become capable, engaged readers.

If you have concerns about your child’s reading development, contact Lindamood-Bell to learn more about a Learning Ability Evaluation and individualized instruction.

 

Online Homeschool Programs: A Guide for Families

Academy, Homeschool, Online

online homeschool programs

Families searching for online homeschool programs are often looking for flexibility, individualized instruction, and the ability to learn from home. Online homeschooling has become an increasingly popular option for families seeking a more personalized educational experience.

At Lindamood-Bell Academy, an accredited California private school offering live online and in-person instruction, students receive individualized teaching that strengthens reading, language, and comprehension while remaining connected to a supportive school community.

 

What Is Online Homeschooling?

what is online homeschooling

Online homeschooling is an approach to learning from home that uses technology to deliver instruction, curriculum, and educational support. Depending on the program, students may learn through live virtual classes, independent online coursework, or a combination of both. Families choose online homeschooling for many reasons, including greater flexibility, individualized instruction, access to specialized programs, and the ability to learn from virtually anywhere.

Online homeschool options vary widely. Some families teach their children using self-selected curriculum and resources, while others choose accredited online schools that provide structured coursework, experienced teachers, ongoing assessment, and personalized academic support.

Common online learning models include synchronous learning with live, scheduled lessons that provide real-time interaction and immediate feedback; asynchronous learning with recorded lessons and self-paced assignments for families seeking greater flexibility; and blended programs that combine live instruction with independent study and offline learning activities.

Lindamood-Bell Academy combines the flexibility of learning from home with live, teacher-led instruction in one-to-one and small-group settings that support academic growth through a personalized educational experience and unique instructional programs that can enhance learning for students.

 

Benefits and Challenges of Online Homeschooling

benefits of online homeschooling

When thoughtfully designed, online homeschooling offers significant benefits for both students and families. Students learn at a pace and level that matches their needs. Learning from home also provides flexibility, making it easier to balance academics with therapies, extracurricular activities, travel, or other family commitments without compromising educational quality. 

Like any educational model, online learning may also present challenges. Parents often wonder whether students will spend too much time in front of a screen, stay motivated, or receive enough individualized attention. The quality of the learning experience depends on how instruction is designed.

At Lindamood-Bell Academy, students don’t spend the day passively watching videos or working through self-paced lessons on their own. Instead, they actively participate in live, teacher-led instruction that encourages discussion, questioning, problem-solving, reading, writing, and critical thinking. Lessons are interactive and intentionally paced, with frequent opportunities for movement, teacher feedback, and purposeful motivator games that help students maintain attention and enthusiasm. Teachers continually adjust instruction based on each student’s understanding and progress, ensuring learning remains appropriately challenging and engaging. This teaching method of responding to the response provides engagement levels with students that are successfully achieved live online or in person.

Lindamood-Bell Academy integrates Lindamood-Bell’s sensory-cognitive instruction into each student’s learning experience. This instruction develops the imagery and language processes that support reading, spelling, comprehension, and learning across subjects. By strengthening these foundational learning abilities, students build the confidence, independence, and academic skills needed for long-term success.

 

Choosing an Online Homeschool Program

online homeschool program

Not all online homeschooling programs offer the same educational experience. As you compare options, look beyond curriculum and scheduling to consider how a program supports your student’s long-term success.

In addition to qualified teachers, accreditation, and personalized instruction, families should consider whether a program helps students build the learning processes that support reading, comprehension, writing, and independent learning.

At Lindamood-Bell Academy, students don’t just complete coursework and curriculum. With our groundbreaking approach, every student receives intensive sensory-cognitive instruction before beginning curriculum, strengthening the learning abilities needed for academic success. Instruction is designed to strengthen the skills that support reading, language, comprehension, critical thinking, and learning itself. By developing these foundational learning abilities alongside a rigorous academic program, students gain the skills and confidence to succeed both in school and beyond. 

 

Curriculum, Instruction, and Resources for Online Homeschooling

online homeschooling curriculum

A high-quality online homeschooling program does more than deliver coursework. It meets students where they are, builds on their strengths, and provides the support they need to achieve long-term academic success. At Lindamood-Bell Academy, students receive live, interactive lessons that strengthen phonemic awareness, symbol imagery, orthographic processing, and concept imagery while applying these skills to reading, writing, and classroom learning.

Learning doesn’t happen in isolation. Families receive regular updates on their students’ progress, ongoing communication with teachers, and personalized recommendations to support learning at home. Frequent progress monitoring helps ensure instruction remains appropriately challenging and that each student continues moving toward their academic goals with confidence.

 

Building Community and Online Homeschooling

online homeschooling community

One of the biggest misconceptions about online homeschooling is that students learn in isolation. A rewarding online school experience is about more than academics. Students also need opportunities to build friendships, celebrate accomplishments, and feel like they are part of a vibrant school community.

At Lindamood-Bell Academy, students connect with classmates through live classroom discussions, collaborative learning activities, and regular school-wide rallies that bring together students from their local area as well as classmates across the United States. Throughout the school year, students enjoy virtual celebrations, spirit days, lunchtime activities, and other shared experiences that encourage connection beyond the classroom. They also have access to exclusive Fit 2 Learn sessions that promote healthy habits, movement, and overall well-being as part of a balanced school experience.

Teachers celebrate student success every day, recognizing academic milestones, perseverance, creativity, and personal growth. These moments of encouragement help students build confidence, stay motivated, and experience the sense of belonging that is an important part of school, whether learning takes place in person or online.

 

Getting Started and Ongoing Support

online homeschool support

Enrollment begins with a comprehensive assessment followed by a consultation to create an academic plan tailored to the student’s goals. Families receive support with scheduling, technology, and orientation before instruction begins. Throughout the school year, teachers regularly monitor progress in reading, fluency, comprehension, writing, and other academic areas. Instruction is continually adjusted as students grow, helping maintain an appropriate level of challenge while supporting ongoing success.

 

Why Families Choose Lindamood-Bell Academy

online homeschool

Families choose Lindamood-Bell Academy because they are looking for more than flexibility. They want an accredited online school that provides individualized instruction, expert teaching, and meaningful academic growth.

Our approach combines:

  • Accredited California private school
  • Flexible online learning with live instruction
  • Expert teachers and personalized support
  • Instruction that strengthens the foundations of reading and learning
  • Regular progress monitoring
  • Opportunities for connection through a vibrant school community

This powerful combination allows students to strengthen foundational learning abilities while developing the knowledge, confidence, and independence they need for long-term success.

 

Take the Next Step

Whether you’re exploring online homeschooling for the first time or looking for an accredited online school with more personalized support, our admissions team can help you determine whether Lindamood-Bell Academy is the right fit for your family.

Lindamood-Bell and Orton-Gillingham | Understanding the Difference

For Schools, Learning Centers, Reading,

 

Families and educators comparing Lindamood-Bell and Orton-Gillingham are often looking for the right approach to support reading and language development, whether for individualized instruction, school-based intervention, or professional development. Both provide explicit, systematic instruction, actively engage students in the learning process, and align with the principles of Structured Literacy. Both also develop foundational reading skills, including phonemic awareness, phonics, decoding, and spelling.

The primary difference lies in instructional emphasis. Orton-Gillingham focuses on Structured Literacy instruction for written language. Along with developing decoding and spelling, it also addresses vocabulary and reading comprehension within language and literacy instruction. Lindamood-Bell also develops these foundational reading skills but places a unique emphasis on developing the sensory-cognitive processes that underlie literacy and learning. Through Seeing Stars®, students explicitly develop symbol imagery, a foundational skill for orthographic mapping, automatic word recognition, spelling, and fluent reading. Through Visualizing and Verbalizing®, students develop concept imagery as a foundation for oral and written language comprehension, memory, and higher-order thinking. Through Lindamood Phoneme Sequencing®, students discover and label the oral-motor movements of phonemes. Students can then verify the identity, number, and sequence of sounds in words. This emphasis on imagery is consistent with decades of cognitive science, including Dual Coding Theory, which demonstrates that language and mental imagery work together to support learning and memory.

 

Sensory-Cognitive Instruction Aligned with Structured Literacy

Lindamood-Bell complements Structured Literacy by addressing the sensory-cognitive processes that help make reading, spelling, and comprehension more automatic and meaningful. For students who continue to struggle despite previous reading instruction, this additional focus can help identify and develop the underlying skills that may be limiting progress.

 

Programs Developed by Lindamood-Bell’s Founders

Lindamood-Bell’s founders developed evidence-based programs that target the sensory-cognitive skills underlying reading, language, and math. Together, these programs develop the foundational learning processes that support literacy, comprehension, and academic success.

Reading and Spelling

Seeing Stars® by Nanci Bell
Develops symbol imagery to strengthen orthographic mapping, automatic word recognition, reading fluency, spelling, phonemic awareness, and orthographic processing.

Lindamood Phoneme Sequencing® (LiPS®) by Patricia Lindamood and Phyllis Lindamood
Develops phonemic awareness through articulatory feedback, helping students perceive, produce, sequence, and manipulate sounds for reading and spelling.

Language Comprehension

Visualizing and Verbalizing® (V/V®) by Nanci Bell
Develops concept imagery as a foundation for oral and written language comprehension, vocabulary, memory, critical thinking, and higher-order thinking.

Talkies® by Nanci Bell and Christy Bonetti
Develops oral language and concept imagery to strengthen vocabulary, sentence structure, expressive language, and comprehension.

Math

On Cloud Nine® by Nanci Bell and Kimberly Tuley
Develops imagery for mathematics to strengthen number sense, mathematical reasoning, problem-solving, and conceptual understanding.

 

Lindamood-Bell and Orton-Gillingham: Key Differences

When comparing Lindamood-Bell and Orton-Gillingham, it is important to recognize that both approaches are explicit and systematic, but they address learning in different ways.

Lindamood-Bell Orton-Gillingham
Primary Focus Develops reading skills and the sensory-cognitive skills that support reading and comprehension. Aligns with a Theory of Cognition. Structured Literacy instruction emphasizing phonemic awareness, phonics, decoding, encoding, and written language structure.
Reading

Instruction

 Integrates phonemic awareness, phonics, symbol imagery, phonological and orthographic processing, fluency, and comprehension. Develops phonemic awareness, phonics, decoding, encoding, and spelling through Structured Literacy instruction.
Comprehension Explicitly develops concept imagery to enable language comprehension and higher-order thinking. Addresses vocabulary and comprehension through language, syntax, semantics, and reading instruction.
Individualization Guided by a Learning Ability Evaluation and ongoing diagnostic teaching. Individualized based on student performance using Orton-Gillingham principles.
Sensory-Cognitive Development Explicitly develops phonemic awareness, symbol imagery, and concept imagery as instructional objectives. Sensory-cognitive processes are not typically identified as separate instructional objectives.

 

What Makes Lindamood-Bell Unique

One way to understand the distinction is to differentiate between what is being taught and how the brain processes it. This distinction is grounded in Dual Coding Theory, which proposes that literacy depends on the interaction of verbal and nonverbal mental representations, rather than on language alone. (Google Books)

As Sadoski and Paivio (2001) explain:

“Cognition in reading and writing consists of the activity of two separate coding systems of mental representation, one system specialized for language (the verbal coding system) and one system specialized for dealing with nonverbal objects and events (the nonverbal coding system).”

Mental representations are the internal forms of information stored in memory, while processing refers to the activation and interaction of those representations during learning, reading, and thinking. (Google Books)

Traditional structured literacy approaches primarily organize instruction around the component skills of reading—phonics, decoding, spelling, vocabulary, morphology, syntax, and comprehension. Lindamood-Bell teaches these same reading components while also directly developing three sensory-cognitive processes that support skilled reading:

  • Phoneme awareness – perceiving and manipulating the identity, number, and order of sounds
  • Symbol imagery – creating stable mental representations of sounds, letters, and spelling patterns to support orthographic processing and automatic word recognition
  • Concept imagery – creating mental representations for language to support vocabulary, comprehension, reasoning, memory, and critical thinking (Lindamood-Bell)

Examples

Below are examples of content-focused instruction (OG-based) and process-focused instruction (Lindamood-Bell sensory-cognitive based).

Vocabulary Instruction

Content-focused instruction

  • Learn the definition.
  • Use the word in a sentence.
  • Practice the word in conversation.
  • Review multiple exposures to strengthen retention.

Process-focused instruction

  • Create a mental image representing the meaning of the word.
  • Describe and expand the image with sensory detail.
  • Draw or sketch the image.
  • Use the image to generate sentences, compare concepts, infer meaning, and improve recall.

The instructional goal extends beyond learning the definition to strengthening concept imagery as a basis for vocabulary, memory, and comprehension.

Word Reading

Content-focused instruction

  • Learn syllable types.
  • Apply phonics rules.
  • Decode unfamiliar words.
  • Practice spelling patterns and word families.

Process-focused instruction

  • Develop symbol imagery for sounds and letters.
  • Visualize the sequence of letters within words.
  • Manipulate phonemes and graphemes mentally (e.g., “Change the a in plant to i. What word do you picture now?”)
  • Store stable orthographic representations that support rapid, automatic word recognition rather than relying on repeated analytical decoding.

Here, phonics instruction is integrated with explicit development of the mental representations that support orthographic mapping and fluent reading. (Lindamood-Bell)

Reading Comprehension

Content-focused instruction

  • Identify the main idea.
  • Answer literal and inferential questions.
  • Learn comprehension strategies such as summarizing, predicting, and questioning.

Process-focused instruction

  • Create detailed mental imagery while reading.
  • Integrate individual images into an “imaged gestalt” of the entire passage.
  • Use imagery to support inference, recall, sequencing, problem solving, and critical thinking.

Rather than treating visualization as a reading strategy, concept imagery becomes the cognitive foundation upon which comprehension is built. (Lindamood-Bell)

Why This Distinction Matters

For many students, explicit instruction in phonics and other reading components is sufficient. Others continue to struggle because weaknesses in phoneme awareness, symbol imagery, or concept imagery interfere with how they store, retrieve, and integrate information during reading.

Lindamood-Bell’s diagnostic approach identifies which sensory-cognitive processes and academic skills are limiting performance. Instruction is then individualized and continuously adjusted, so each student receives the emphasis most likely to improve reading, spelling, comprehension, and confidence.

 

For Parents: Getting Started with Lindamood-Bell Instruction

If your child continues to struggle with reading, comprehension, or learning despite previous instruction, it can be difficult to know what to try next. At Lindamood-Bell, the first step is understanding why your child is struggling.

A comprehensive Learning Ability Evaluation goes beyond measuring academic performance to identify the sensory-cognitive skills that support reading, spelling, language comprehension, and learning. The evaluation examines areas such as phonemic awareness, word recognition, reading fluency, spelling, oral language comprehension, and reading comprehension to provide a clear picture of your child’s strengths and learning needs.

Using these results, our team develops an individualized learning plan focused on the skills that will have the greatest impact on your child’s progress. Instruction is available in person at Lindamood-Bell Learning Centers and through live online instruction. Throughout the process, families receive regular updates, and instruction is continuously adjusted as new skills develop and learning accelerates.

If you’re ready to learn more about your child’s learning profile, contact your nearest Lindamood-Bell Learning Center or schedule a Learning Ability Evaluation (slide-out form). Together, we can determine the instruction that best supports your child’s path to stronger reading, comprehension, and lifelong learning.

 

For Educators: Partnering with Lindamood-Bell

Since 1986, Lindamood-Bell has partnered with educators, schools, and districts to improve student outcomes through evidence-based instruction, professional development, and customized school partnerships. Whether you’re looking to strengthen classroom instruction, provide intensive intervention, or build schoolwide capacity, Lindamood-Bell offers flexible solutions tailored to your goals.

Professional development workshops prepare educators, speech-language pathologists, and intervention specialists to implement the founders’ programs, including Seeing Stars®, Visualizing and Verbalizing®, Talkies®, LiPS®, and On Cloud Nine® math. Through hands-on learning, demonstrations, guided practice, and implementation support, participants gain practical strategies for developing the sensory-cognitive skills that support reading, language, and math. Schools and districts can also receive customized coaching, consultation, in-service training, and job-embedded professional learning.

For schools seeking additional intervention, the Learning Center on Campus model brings Lindamood-Bell instructional staff directly to the school site, allowing students to receive intensive one-to-one instruction during the school day while remaining part of their school community. This partnership provides direct student services while giving educators the opportunity to observe instruction and deepen their understanding of sensory-cognitive learning.

Explore our professional development workshops and school partnership options, or call 800-233-1819 to speak with a program expert about how Lindamood-Bell can support your educators, students, and school community.

 

Frequently Asked Questions

What is the difference between Lindamood-Bell and Orton-Gillingham?

Lindamood-Bell’s approach has similarities to Orton-Gillingham, such as explicit, systematic, multisensory instruction in the component parts of reading—phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension. Our approach differs in its focus on the underlying sensory-cognitive processes of symbol imagery and concept imagery. These skills may be an important missing piece for some students who continue to struggle despite receiving high-quality reading instruction. 

 

Does Lindamood-Bell include phonics instruction?

Yes. Like Orton-Gillingham, Lindamood-Bell includes explicit instruction in phonemic awareness and phonics as part of a comprehensive approach to developing reading and spelling. Lindamood-Bell also develops the sensory-cognitive processes that support orthographic processing, fluent reading, and language comprehension.

 

Is Lindamood-Bell effective for students with dyslexia?

Yes. Lindamood-Bell instruction helps many students with dyslexia as well as other students who struggle with reading. Instruction is individualized to address each student’s specific learning needs by developing the sensory-cognitive skills that support reading, spelling, and language comprehension.

Research supports this individualized approach. In a groundbreaking study published in Nature Communications, researchers at Stanford University found that Lindamood-Bell reading intervention significantly improved reading skills in children with dyslexia while also strengthening the brain networks that support reading. These findings provide evidence that instruction targeting the underlying learning processes can improve reading while strengthening the neural systems involved in reading.

 

Can Lindamood-Bell be used alongside Orton-Gillingham?

Yes. Many students who continue to struggle with reading after receiving Orton-Gillingham or other reading instruction benefit from instruction that develops the underlying sensory-cognitive skills affecting reading. For example, Seeing Stars® explicitly develops symbol imagery, a foundational skill for orthographic mapping, automatic word recognition, spelling, and reading fluency.

Separately, some students struggle primarily with language comprehension, memory, or higher-order thinking due to weak concept imagery. Visualizing and Verbalizing® explicitly develops concept imagery to strengthen comprehension, critical thinking, and learning from language. This instruction can benefit students whether or not they have previously received Orton-Gillingham or other reading intervention.

 

How can families determine what instruction their child needs?

Every student has a unique learning profile. A comprehensive assessment can identify the underlying skills affecting reading, comprehension, and learning. Lindamood-Bell’s Learning Ability Evaluation identifies sensory-cognitive strengths and weaknesses and provides individualized instructional recommendations based on each student’s needs.

 

Is Lindamood-Bell instruction available online?

Yes. Lindamood-Bell’s live online instruction mirrors the individualized instruction provided in our Learning Centers, making the same evidence-based instruction available to students wherever they live.

 

Why Families and Educators Choose Lindamood-Bell

Whether you’re a parent seeking answers for a child who continues to struggle with reading or an educator looking to strengthen literacy instruction and student outcomes, Lindamood-Bell offers individualized solutions backed by decades of experience and research.

Wherever you are in your journey, Lindamood-Bell is committed to helping students develop the skills that make learning possible.

Get in Touch to learn more.

Lindamood-Bell Names San Luis Obispo Learning Center as Flagship Location; Announces Emily Hoffman as Director

* Press Releases, Learning Centers

For more than 40 years, Lindamood-Bell’s San Luis Obispo Learning Center has been at the heart of the organization’s mission to change lives through learning. As Lindamood-Bell’s first Learning Center and home to its corporate headquarters, it has now been designated as the organization’s official Flagship Learning Center. The company also announced the appointment of Emily Hoffman as Flagship Learning Center Director.

The Flagship designation recognizes the San Luis Obispo Learning Center’s role as a hub for innovation, educator training, and instructional excellence across Lindamood-Bell’s 46 locations nationwide. While every Lindamood-Bell Learning Center is committed to helping students achieve meaningful learning gains, the Flagship Center will serve as a place where new ideas are developed, best practices are refined, and educator training strengthens instruction across the organization.

Emily Hoffman brings 30 years of Lindamood-Bell experience to her new role. She has served in several leadership positions, including Learning Center Director and, most recently, Director of Lindamood-Bell Academy.

“There is something incredibly meaningful about leading the Flagship Center in San Luis Obispo, where Lindamood-Bell began,” said Hoffman. “This center represents both our history and our future. I’m honored to support our local families while also helping strengthen innovation, collaboration, and excellence across all of our locations.”

“Emily’s depth of experience and commitment to students make her uniquely qualified to lead our Flagship Learning Center,” said Alison Bell, Executive Vice President. “San Luis Obispo has always held a special place in our organization, and under Emily’s leadership, it will continue to serve as a model of excellence and growth.”

The designation was celebrated during a special event at Lindamood-Bell’s San Luis Obispo headquarters, which also marked the organization’s 40th anniversary. Co-founder and CEO Nanci Bell reflected on Lindamood-Bell’s history and vision for the future, Emily Hoffman welcomed guests into the Learning Center, and the San Luis Obispo Chamber of Commerce hosted an official ribbon-cutting ceremony.

Watch KSBY’s coverage of this milestone.

As Lindamood-Bell’s Flagship Learning Center, the San Luis Obispo location will continue providing individualized instruction for students while serving as a national center for educator training, instructional collaboration, and innovation.

To learn more about the San Luis Obispo Learning Center or schedule a Learning Ability Evaluation, please visit our San Luis Obispo Learning Center page.

A Reading Program That Works for Struggling Readers

Learning Centers, Learning Difficulties, Reading, , , ,

reading program for struggling readers

 

Reading is a foundational skill that not only shapes academic achievement but also a student’s confidence and self-esteem. At Lindamood-Bell, we believe that all individuals can learn to read and comprehend to their potential. Our instruction for struggling readers is based on programs authored by our founders. It offers a personalized, evidence-based approach that ensures every student receives the focused attention they need to succeed. By identifying and addressing the underlying causes of reading difficulties, our instruction helps build essential skills and enables students to discover the joy of learning. Learn how our approach can transform struggling readers into confident, independent learners.

 

Understanding Struggling Readers

understanding reading struggles

Students who struggle with reading may exhibit signs such as poor phonemic awareness, difficulty decoding words, and poor fluency. These challenges often lead to frustration and reduced confidence in the classroom. Without the right support, reading difficulties can affect academic performance across all subjects and hinder a child’s willingness to engage.

Another common issue is difficulty remembering sight words or spelling words correctly. Some students may spell phonetically and sound out words accurately, yet struggle to recognize those same words moments later in connected text. This is often the result of weak symbol imagery—the ability to visualize letters and sounds within words.

Symbol imagery is critical for orthographic awareness, which is recognizing and remembering the visual patterns of words. Students with weak symbol imagery often:

  • Struggle to memorize sight words
  • Have trouble with orthographic (visual) spelling
  • Sound out words accurately, but fail to recognize them later
  • Show inconsistent fluency and slow self-correction
  • Experience difficulty in contextual reading

At Lindamood-Bell, we specialize in delivering individualized instruction using evidence-based reading programs for struggling readers developed by our founders. Our approach is designed to strengthen the sensory-cognitive skills that underlie reading, including symbol imagery, to support lasting success.

 

How Our Instruction for Struggling Readers Works

instruction and tutoring for reading struggles

At Lindamood-Bell, we understand that struggling readers need more than extra practice. They need evidence-based instruction tailored to their unique needs. Our instruction is grounded in a deep understanding of the sensory-cognitive processes that underlie reading. Using programs developed by our founders, we provide engaging instruction that develops foundational reading skills such as phonemic awareness and symbol imagery.

Each student begins with a comprehensive learning ability evaluation to determine their strengths and specific areas for growth. Based on the results, we create an individualized learning plan that targets the skills most in need of development. This highly personalized approach ensures that students gain meaningful progress with each instructional session.

Sessions are interactive and engaging, designed to make learning both effective and enjoyable. Through one-to-one instruction, students stay motivated while building the confidence needed to take on academic challenges.

 

Success Stories: Transforming Struggling Readers

help for struggling readers

Over the years, we’ve helped thousands of students find success through instruction based on the reading programs developed by our founders. We’re proud to share stories from families who have seen remarkable growth in their children’s reading abilities and enthusiasm for learning.

One such student is Alyssa, who was falling behind in reading and struggling in school. After receiving personalized instruction at Lindamood-Bell, Alyssa gained the tools and confidence to thrive.

Watch Alyssa’s story:

 

Many parents share their stories of how Lindamood-Bell instruction has helped their children become more engaged in school, more independent, and excited about reading, often for the first time. The impact goes far beyond academics—it helps spark a lifelong love of learning.

 

Why Our Approach to Reading Instruction Works for Struggling Readers

reading instruction and support for struggling readers

At Lindamood-Bell, our instruction is guided by decades of research and real-world results. The reading programs developed by our founders target the sensory-cognitive skills most essential for learning to read. One key component of our instruction is the Seeing Stars® program, developed by Lindamood-Bell co-founder Nanci Bell.

Seeing Stars develops symbol imagery—the ability to visualize sounds and letters in words—as a basis for:

  • Orthographic awareness
  • Phonemic awareness
  • Word attack and recognition
  • Spelling
  • Contextual reading fluency

Symbol imagery is vital to developing the automaticity and fluency that confident readers rely on. Even students with strong phonemic awareness can struggle to establish a reliable bank of sight words or read fluently in context if symbol imagery is weak. Fortunately, symbol imagery can be assessed and developed with the right instruction.

Instruction is provided one-to-one and customized to each student’s pace and learning profile. Whether in person at a Learning Center or online, students receive the same high-quality experience, making our approach effective and accessible for busy families.

Choosing Lindamood-Bell means joining a supportive, collaborative community. We work closely with families, offering regular updates, strategy sessions, and expert guidance to help support learning at home. Our team is committed to student success and to providing encouragement at every step of the journey.

 

Getting Started with a Reading Program for Struggling Readers

reading program for reading problems

Getting started is simple: call us at 800-300-1818 or contact us online. We’ll discuss solutions for your child’s specific reading difficulties and explain how our instruction can help build the skills they need to succeed. Our learning experts are ready to help answer your questions. Get in touch today! 

Next, we conduct a thorough evaluation to identify your child’s learning strengths and needs. Based on this assessment, we design a customized instruction plan that targets the areas where your child needs the most support. You’ll receive a detailed summary of our findings and recommendations for the next steps.

To support families everywhere, we offer live, one-to-one online instruction. Our virtual students make gains comparable to those attending in person, and the flexible format fits easily into busy schedules.

At Lindamood-Bell, we’re passionate about helping every student succeed. Our instruction empowers students with the skills and confidence they need to thrive in school and beyond.

Start your journey with us today and watch your child thrive!

Get in touch or contact your local learning center today! 

Dyslexia Causes and Interventions | Explore the Facts and Find Support

Dyslexia, Learning Difficulties, Reading, , ,

Understanding the causes of dyslexia helps parents and educators make informed decisions about effective, evidence-based support. 

 

What Is Dyslexia?

what is dyslexia

Dyslexia is a specific learning disability characterized by difficulties in word reading and/or spelling that involve accuracy, speed, or both and vary depending on the orthography of the English language. These difficulties occur along a continuum of severity and may persist even with instruction that is effective for the individual’s peers. The causes of dyslexia are complex and involve combinations of genetic, neurobiological, and environmental influences that interact throughout development. Underlying difficulties with phonological, orthographic, and morphological processing are common but not universal, and early oral language weaknesses often foreshadow literacy challenges. Secondary consequences include reading comprehension problems and reduced reading and writing experience, which can impede growth in language, knowledge, written expression, and overall academic achievement. Psychological well-being and employment opportunities also may be affected. Although identification and targeted instruction are important at any age, language and literacy support before and during the early years of education is particularly effective. Targeted instruction beyond the early years of education, when diagnostically driven and delivered intensively, can lead to remediation of dyslexia. 

 

What Are the Possible Causes of Dyslexia?

 

The Brain’s Reading Network

Understanding what causes dyslexia begins with understanding the brain’s reading network. Reading relies on interconnected regions in the left hemisphere that support the processing of the sounds of the phonemes in the English language, coupled with the symbols/letters representing those sounds, and their relationships to words. Difficulties grounded in these brain-based regions negatively affect word recognition. In dyslexia, these neurological systems do not activate as efficiently, and the connections among them differ from those of typical readers. These differences are present early in development and are not the result of low intelligence. Causation is complex. Beyond genetic factors, the lack of evidence-based developmental instruction in appropriate educational environments that address the necessary brain processes may contribute to a diagnosis of dyslexia.

Specifically, from what is termed as a sensory-cognitive perspective, instructionally stimulating and systematically addressing the combination of phonological and orthographic processing (sounds and letter symbols) as applied to words plays a central role in learning to read. When the brain has difficulty precisely perceiving, segmenting, and manipulating speech sounds in combination with letters, it may struggle to build stable connections as applied to decoding (reading) and encoding (spelling). 

The encouraging news is that research indicates that, with effective, structured sensory-cognitive instruction that directly targets these underlying processes, neural pathways connecting the auditory, visual, and language systems can and will become more efficient over time, with the right instruction over the necessary amount of time. Research from the Universities of Georgetown, the University of Washington, MIT and Stanford has shown that targeted reading intervention can support measurable changes in the brain’s reading circuitry alongside behavioral improvements in reading skills. Learn more in the article, Teachers are Brain Engineers, from the University of Washington.

 

Genetic and Hereditary Factors of Dyslexia 

As inferred from above, genetic influences are associated with reading development, though no single gene causes dyslexia. Instead, multiple genetic factors contribute to the development of the networks involved with all processes associated with learning to read.

Because these influences are complex, two individuals with similar family histories may have very different learning profiles. What remains consistent is that early identification and instruction that directly strengthen foundational reading skills can significantly improve outcomes.

 

Environmental Influences on Dyslexia

Environmental factors can significantly contribute to the diagnosis of dyslexia, influencing how early reading challenges are addressed if children do not receive effective, scientifically validated instructional support. From a sensory-cognitive perspective, in addition to early rich print exposure, specific diagnostic assessments play an important role in helping educators identify students who may need additional support.

When concerns are recognized early and timely, with the right kind of explicit instruction that directly develops underlying sensory-cognitive reading skills, stronger outcomes can be realized. High-quality early, scientifically based differential diagnosis and literacy instruction in preschool, kindergarten, and the primary grades can help identify difficulties sooner and provide students with targeted support before reading struggles become more significant. Not addressing these factors will affect whether students are identified and supported, determining the odds of a diagnosis of dyslexia.

When instruction does not explicitly target the necessary underlying sensory-cognitive skills, students may continue to struggle despite exposure and effort. In contrast, instruction that directly develops these foundational systems can lead to meaningful, measurable growth in reading and comprehension. Dyslexia occurs across all socioeconomic backgrounds, languages, and learning environments.

  

Myths and Misconceptions About Dyslexia

Myth:  Dyslexia is associated with low intelligence.
Fact:  Individuals with dyslexia have a wide range of intellectual abilities, often average to above average. Dyslexia affects reading efficiency, not thinking or learning capacity.

Myth:  Dyslexia is caused by a phonological processing weakness.
Fact: While Phonological processing is a factor, there is more to it. The ability to process the orthographic structure (number, order, and sequence of letters in words) of English is equally at play in learning to read.

Myth: Students will outgrow dyslexia without help.
 Fact: While individuals may develop coping strategies, dyslexia reflects underlying language-processing differences that benefit from explicit, structured instruction targeting foundational reading skills.

Myth: Dyslexia is lifelong and cannot be helped.
 Fact: Research shows that appropriate intensive instruction can lead to significant improvement in reading and spelling for students with dyslexia. Early, intensive, and explicit instruction that develops underlying sensory-cognitive and language-processing skills is associated with stronger outcomes.

Myth: Accommodations are the primary way to help someone with dyslexia.
 Fact: Accommodations such as extra time or audiobooks can improve access to grade-level content, but they do not directly develop the underlying reading skills needed for long-term independence. Students with dyslexia benefit most from explicit, systematic instruction that directly targets foundational sensory-cognitive skills, including phonological awareness and symbol imagery – the ability to create mental representations for letters and words. Strengthening these skills supports accurate word recognition and reading fluency over time.

 

How Dyslexia Is Identified

how to identify dyslexia

Early signs can appear before formal reading instruction, including difficulty with rhyming, recognizing and manipulating sounds, and learning letter names and sounds. These early indicators reflect developing phonological awareness skills.

As reading begins, consistent struggles with decoding, slow and effortful reading, and persistent spelling difficulties may indicate a need for evaluation.

A comprehensive assessment typically includes measures of phonological awareness, letter-sound knowledge, decoding, word reading, fluency, spelling, and language comprehension. These results help identify specific sensory-cognitive strengths and weaknesses and guide instruction that targets the underlying skills involved in what causes dyslexia.

 

Support for Dyslexia at Lindamood-Bell

support for dyslexia

At Lindamood-Bell, we help families attain real, measurable progress by focusing on the sensory-cognitive foundations of reading. Our instruction targets the underlying causes of reading weaknesses, including phonological processing and symbol imagery (orthographic processing) —the ability to create mental representations for sounds and letters—which supports accurate decoding and fluent reading.

We provide individualized, intensive instruction that strengthens the cognitive skills necessary for reading, including:

  • Phonological awareness and symbol imagery
  • Decoding and word recognition
  • Spelling and written language
  • Reading fluency and comprehension

We begin with a comprehensive Learning Ability Evaluation to identify each learner’s strengths and needs, then create a personalized instruction plan with clear goals and frequent progress checks. Families partner with our team to support sustained growth over time. Independent research and outcome data, including studies showing changes in brain pathways alongside gains in reading skills, position Lindamood-Bell as a trusted leader in literacy instruction.

For nearly four decades, Lindamood-Bell has worked with tens of thousands of individuals. Our success is grounded in our sensory-cognitive approach to instruction, which directly targets the skills underlying reading development.

The Seeing Stars® program develops symbol imagery, the ability to visualize letters in words. This skill supports decoding unfamiliar words, recognizing sight words, spelling, and fluent reading in context. See the progress results that students with dyslexia made after Lindamood-Bell instruction:

Students with a Prior Dyslexia Diagnosis Who Received Decoding Instruction Only

Lindamood-Bell Instruction Implemented: Seeing Stars

Years: Jan. 2008 – Dec. 2024

Number of Students: 3,605

Average Age: 10.2

Average Instruction Hours: 125.8

 

Take the Next Step

cause of dyslexia

If you’re wondering how to support your child’s reading growth, we can help you move forward with clarity and confidence. For nearly forty years, Lindamood-Bell has partnered with families to transform reading and comprehension through instruction that targets the underlying causes of reading difficulty and builds strong, independent learners. Schedule a Learning Ability Evaluation to gain a clear understanding of your child’s strengths and needs and take the next step toward meaningful progress.

What Is Phoneme Awareness? A Guide for Parents and Educators

Learning Difficulties, Reading, ,

what is phonemic awareness

 

Phoneme awareness is an important component of reading and language development, but it is not reading itself. To understand phoneme awareness, it is helpful to first understand how reading works.

Reading is an integration of multiple processing skills, including word attack, sight word recognition, contextual reading fluency, oral vocabulary, and comprehension. Successful reading requires more than decoding words accurately. Readers must also create meaning from language, monitor their own understanding, and self-correct when something does not make sense.

At Lindamood-Bell, we view reading and comprehension as cognitive acts that depend on underlying sensory-cognitive functions. Three sensory-cognitive functions underlie reading and comprehension:

Phoneme Awareness (PA) is the ability to perceive the identity, number, and sequence of sounds within words.

Symbol Imagery (SI) is the ability to create mental images for sounds and letters within words.

Concept Imagery (CI) is the ability to create an imaged gestalt, or whole, for oral and written language.

While individuals may differ in their abilities, the processes necessary for reading are not different. When one or more of these sensory-cognitive functions is weak or inefficient, reading and comprehension can become difficult. The encouraging news is that sensory-cognitive functions can be developed, changing an individual’s ability to read, comprehend, and learn.

Reading is a cognitive process consisting of language and imagery. Readers use sensory input to monitor accuracy, self-correct errors, and construct meaning from text. Effective instruction must therefore align with how cognition works if it is to produce meaningful and lasting changes in reading and comprehension.

 

What Is Phoneme Awareness?

definition of phonemic awareness

Phoneme awareness is the ability to perceive the identity, number, and sequence of sounds within words.

For example, a student with strong phoneme awareness can recognize that the word cat contains three sounds: /k/, /a/, and /t/. The student can identify individual sounds, blend sounds together to form words, segment words into sounds, and manipulate sounds to create new words.

Phoneme awareness involves attending to spoken language and recognizing the sound structure of words. It is often discussed as part of phonological awareness, a broader term that includes awareness of larger units of sound such as words, syllables, and rhymes.

 

Why Phoneme Awareness Matters

phonemic awareness skills

Phoneme awareness contributes to accurate word identification, spelling, and language processing by enabling individuals to perceive the identity, number, and sequence of sounds within words.

When phoneme awareness is well developed, students are better able to notice when sounds are added, omitted, substituted, or rearranged within words. This ability helps them monitor their own responses, recognize errors, and make corrections while reading and spelling.

Weak phoneme awareness can contribute to difficulties with:

  • Recognizing the sameness and difference of sounds
  • Discriminating the identity, number, and sequence of sounds within words
  • Blending sounds into words
  • Word attack
  • Spelling
  • Self-correcting reading errors

Research and instructional experience have demonstrated that phoneme awareness can be developed and applied to literacy skills. As students strengthen their awareness of sounds within words, they often become more accurate and confident readers and spellers.

At the same time, phoneme awareness alone does not fully explain skilled reading. Students may develop strong phoneme awareness and word attack skills yet continue to struggle with automatic word recognition, contextual reading fluency, or comprehension. For this reason, Lindamood-Bell views phoneme awareness as one of several sensory-cognitive functions that contribute to successful reading and learning.

 

Developing the Sensory-Cognitive Functions for Reading

phonemic awareness and reading

Lindamood-Bell uses programs that develop the sensory-cognitive functions that underlie reading and comprehension.

Seeing Stars® Program, Symbol Imagery for Phonological and Orthographic Processing in Reading and Spelling (SI)

The Seeing Stars® Program, by Nanci Bell, develops symbol imagery, the ability to visualize sounds and letters in words, as a basis for orthographic awareness, phoneme awareness, word attack, word recognition, spelling, and contextual reading fluency.

As students develop the ability to image letters and letter patterns, they strengthen their awareness of the sounds within words and improve their ability to identify, decode, spell, and recognize words automatically.

 

Lindamood Phoneme Sequencing® Program for Reading, Spelling, and Speech (LiPS®)

Some students require more basic and more extensive work to develop phoneme awareness.

The LiPS® Program, by Patricia Lindamood and Phyllis Lindamood, teaches students to discover and label the oral-motor movements of phonemes. Using oral-motor, visual, and auditory feedback, students learn to verify the identity, number, and sequence of sounds within words. LiPS® may be appropriate for students who need more direct and extensive phoneme awareness instruction.

 

Visualizing and Verbalizing® for Language Comprehension and Thinking (V/V®)

The V/V® Program, by Nanci Bell, develops concept imagery, the ability to create an imagined or imaged gestalt from language, as a basis for comprehension and higher-order thinking. The development of concept imagery supports reading and listening comprehension, memory, oral vocabulary, critical thinking, and writing.

 

Signs a Student May Need Support

support for phonemic awareness

Students with weaknesses in phoneme awareness may:

  • Have difficulty perceiving or manipulating sounds within words
  • Add, omit, substitute, or reverse sounds when reading or spelling
  • Struggle with word attack and spelling
  • Rely on guessing rather than accurate word identification

Reading difficulties may also result from weaknesses in symbol imagery or concept imagery. Students who struggle with word attack, spelling, or contextual reading fluency may benefit from developing symbol imagery. Students who struggle with vocabulary, language comprehension, or creating meaning from text may benefit from the development of concept imagery.

When a student struggles with reading, it is important to look beyond academic performance and consider the sensory-cognitive processes that underlie learning. A Learning Ability Evaluation can help identify strengths and weaknesses and provide valuable information for developing an effective instructional plan.

 

Lindamood-Bell Instruction

improve phonemic awareness

Traditional reading and tutoring programs often focus on practice, content, reading strategies, or spelling rules. While these approaches may address academic performance, they do not always develop the sensory-cognitive functions necessary for reading and comprehension.

Lindamood-Bell is different.

Our instruction is designed to develop the sensory-cognitive processes that underlie reading, spelling, language comprehension, and critical thinking. Depending on an individual’s learning needs, instruction may focus on developing one or more of the sensory-cognitive functions that support learning.

Instruction is personalized, intensive, and responsive to student performance. Through one-to-one or small-group instruction, delivered in person or live-online, students develop the underlying processes necessary for reading, spelling, comprehension, and learning.

Lindamood-Bell Instruction begins with a Learning Ability Evaluation that identifies strengths and areas of need. Using this information, we create an individualized learning plan designed to develop the sensory-cognitive functions that support learning and academic success.

Across thousands of students, Lindamood-Bell has documented gains in reading, spelling, language comprehension, and critical thinking. Our goal is to help students become accurate, fluent, and confident learners.

 

Training for Educators

how to teach phonemic awareness

Lindamood-Bell partners with schools and districts to help educators understand and develop the sensory-cognitive processes that underlie reading, comprehension, and learning. Our approach, grounded in the cognitive science of learning, aligns with the science of reading and structured literacy.

Through professional learning, educators learn how sensory-cognitive functions such as Phoneme Awareness, Symbol Imagery, and Concept Imagery contribute to reading, spelling, language comprehension, and academic success.

Lindamood-Bell for Schools offers workshops, coaching, and comprehensive school partnerships, available live online and in person. Individual educators can enroll in workshops to deepen their instructional knowledge, while schools and districts can engage in coaching and partnership opportunities designed to support implementation and student achievement.

Teachers, specialists, interventionists, administrators, and school teams gain practical strategies they can apply immediately while deepening their understanding of the processes that support literacy and learning.

 

 

Frequently Asked Questions

What is the difference between phoneme awareness and phonics?

Phoneme awareness is the ability to perceive and manipulate the sounds within spoken words. Phonics involves instruction in the relationship between sounds and letters.

How can I tell if a child needs help with phoneme awareness?

Students with weak phoneme awareness may have difficulty identifying sounds within words, blending sounds, spelling accurately, or discriminating between similar sounds.

Does phoneme awareness affect reading comprehension?

Phoneme awareness supports accurate word identification and spelling. However, skilled reading also depends on symbol imagery and concept imagery. Students may develop strong phoneme awareness yet continue to struggle with automatic word recognition, contextual reading fluency, or comprehension. Independent reading and comprehension require the integration of multiple sensory-cognitive functions.

How does Lindamood-Bell help with reading?

Depending on an individual’s learning needs, instruction may focus on developing one or more of the sensory-cognitive functions that underlie reading and comprehension:

  • Seeing Stars® develops Symbol Imagery, the ability to visualize sounds and letters within words.
  • Visualizing and Verbalizing® develops Concept Imagery, the ability to create a gestalt for oral and written language.
  • LiPS® provides more basic and extensive development of phoneme awareness for students who may benefit from oral-motor kinesthetic feedback.

One or more of these programs may be used to address an individual’s specific learning needs.

 

 

Support for Dyslexia and Other Reading Disorders

Dyslexia, Learning Difficulties, Reading, , ,

 

 

Understanding the Signs of Reading Disorders and Finding Effective Help

support for dyslexia and reading disorders

If your child is struggling with reading, you’re not alone, and early support can make all the difference. It’s common for parents to wonder whether their child is just taking longer to catch on, or if something deeper, like dyslexia or another reading disorder, might be at play. At Lindamood-Bell, we specialize in identifying and addressing the root causes of reading difficulties. Our evidence-based instruction helps individuals of all ages and skill levels build the essential foundation for reading success and lasting confidence.

 

What Is Dyslexia?

find support for dyslexia and reading disorders

Dyslexia is a language-based learning difficulty that affects how the brain processes written and spoken words. Children with dyslexia may have trouble sounding out words, recognizing familiar words automatically, or spelling accurately. These challenges can make reading feel slow, effortful, and frustrating, especially when they impact fluency and comprehension. Importantly, dyslexia is not a reflection of a child’s intelligence or effort. With the right support and targeted instruction, students with dyslexia can become confident, capable readers and spellers.

 

Signs of Dyslexia

sings of dyslexia and reading disorders

Some of the most common signs that may indicate dyslexia include:

Difficulty with Sounding Out Words and Recognizing Sight Words

Students with dyslexia often have trouble breaking words into individual sounds (phonemes). They might misread words by skipping or substituting letters, for example, reading “steam” instead of “stream.”
They may also struggle to recognize sight words like “eye” or “thought,” which must be memorized and don’t follow typical phonetic rules.

Struggles with Reading Fluency

A student might be able to sound out words correctly but still read slowly or with frequent stops. When reading doesn’t flow smoothly, it becomes harder to understand the overall meaning of a sentence or story.

Ongoing Spelling Challenges

Spelling can be a lasting struggle for children with reading difficulties. They might spell words the way they sound but have trouble remembering the correct spelling, especially for words that don’t follow typical rules.

If these signs sound familiar, it may be time to take a closer look. The sooner you identify the issue and get the right support, the sooner your child can start gaining confidence and skills that will last a lifetime. Explore results from students diagnosed with dyslexia who received Seeing Stars® instruction at our Learning Centers.

 

Understanding Other Reading Disorders

understanding reading disorders

While dyslexia is one of the most widely recognized reading disorders, it’s not the only one. Other challenges can affect a child’s ability to read effectively, and Lindamood-Bell programs are designed to support a range of learning needs.

Reading Comprehension Difficulties

Some children can read words accurately but still have difficulty understanding what they’ve read. This challenge often stems from weak concept imagery—the ability to create mental pictures from language. Without this imagery, it’s difficult to follow the meaning of sentences, grasp main ideas, and retain important details.

The Visualizing and Verbalizing® program develops this essential skill, helping students build the mental imagery needed for strong comprehension. As concept imagery improves, students can better understand and remember what they read or hear, make inferences, and think critically.

Want to see what’s possible? Explore results from students who received Visualizing and Verbalizing instruction at our Learning Centers.

Central Auditory Processing Disorder (CAPD)

CAPD affects how the brain processes auditory information, making it difficult for a child to distinguish and manipulate sounds, skills that are foundational to reading. This can lead to struggles with phonemic awareness, decoding, and fluency.

At Lindamood-Bell, we address reading challenges like these through intensive, one-to-one instruction that develops the sensory-cognitive skills essential for reading success. The Seeing Stars® program helps students with CAPD strengthen their ability to perceive sounds, decode words, and become more accurate and fluent readers.

Many students diagnosed with CAPD have made significant gains through our approach—see their progress here.

Dysgraphia

Dysgraphia is a learning challenge that primarily affects writing, but it often overlaps with reading difficulties. Children with dysgraphia may have trouble with spelling, organizing their thoughts on paper, using proper grammar or punctuation, or maintaining legible handwriting. These difficulties can make written expression frustrating and time-consuming, and they may affect performance across multiple subjects.

At Lindamood-Bell, we address these interconnected challenges with a comprehensive approach. Our reading instruction—using the Seeing Stars® program for decoding and spelling and the Visualizing and Verbalizing® program for comprehension—helps strengthen the underlying sensory-cognitive skills that are essential for reading and writing success. For example, students who struggle with organizing their thoughts in writing often benefit from Visualizing and Verbalizing, which develops concept imagery and helps them clarify and sequence ideas more effectively.

In addition, our Academic Prep program offers targeted support for students looking to improve higher-level skills such as writing, organization, study skills, and test preparation strategies. With one-to-one instruction and customized goals, students build confidence in their writing and executive functioning abilities, gaining tools they can use in school and beyond.

 

No matter what type of reading or learning difficulty your child is facing—whether it’s dyslexia, a reading comprehension challenge, CAPD, dysgraphia, or another reading disorder—Lindamood-Bell is here to help. Our evidence-based, individualized instruction targets the root causes of reading struggles, helping students gain the skills they need to succeed. With the right support, every child can become a confident, independent learner. If you’ve noticed signs of a reading disorder, don’t wait. Early action can make all the difference. Contact us to learn how we can support your child’s learning journey.

 

What Makes Lindamood-Bell Different in Supporting Dyslexia and Other Reading Disorders

instruction for reading disorders

At Lindamood-Bell, we go beyond traditional tutoring to provide evidence-based, individualized instruction that addresses the root causes of reading difficulties. Our founders’ programs are backed by decades of research, clinical experience, and proven results with students of all ages and ability levels.

Reading is a complex process that depends on the integration of multiple skills—word decoding, sight word recognition, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension. Rather than relying solely on repetition or strategies, our approach develops the underlying sensory-cognitive functions necessary for lasting growth in reading and understanding. These include:

  • Phoneme awareness: the ability to auditorily perceive sounds within words
  • Symbol imagery: the ability to create mental imagery for letters and sounds in words
  • Concept imagery: the ability to create mental representations for the whole; it is dynamic imagery of actions, scenes, movement, and more.

At our Learning Centers, we provide Seeing Stars® and Visualizing and Verbalizing® instruction in a one-to-one environment that’s personalized, encouraging, and designed to meet each learner’s unique needs. Whether a student struggles with reading accuracy, fluency, comprehension, or all three, no matter the degree of difficulty, our intensive instruction is designed to create significant, lasting change.

 

We also believe that learning should be exciting and rewarding. That’s why we build motivation into every part of the Learning Center experience. From Wacky Wednesdays, where students get silly and creative, to Magical Learning Moments that celebrate breakthroughs with joy, we make sure each day feels special. Our “Hooray for You” celebrations recognize personal achievements and help students feel proud of their progress.

We take pride in offering:

  • Personalized learning plans based on a thorough Learning Ability Evaluation
  • Ongoing, real-time progress monitoring to ensure steady, measurable growth
  • A strong focus on motivation and confidence-building, with caring instructors who create a safe, supportive space for learning
  • Regular communication with families, including updates, milestone celebrations, and collaborative planning

Motivation is key to success, and we keep students engaged with fun games, activities, and reward systems. These tools not only boost enjoyment but also inspire students to stay focused and reach their goals.

Most importantly, we get results. Many students make years of progress in just weeks of daily instruction. Our instruction helps students not only overcome their learning challenges but also gain the tools and confidence to thrive academically and beyond.

 

Support for Dyslexia and Other Reading Disorders at Lindamood-Bell
help for dyslexia and reading disorders

At Lindamood-Bell, we understand how dyslexia and other reading disorders can impact a student’s academic experience and self-confidence. That’s why our instruction goes beyond tutoring—we use evidence-based programs to develop the foundational skills needed for fluent reading and strong comprehension.

Our students’ success stories speak volumes. With the right support, they not only make measurable gains in reading but also discover newfound confidence and a love of learning.

 

 

If your child is struggling with dyslexia or another reading disorder, we’re here to help. Our team is ready to create a personalized learning plan that meets your child’s unique needs and unlocks their true potential.

Get in touch or call 800-233-1819 to learn more.

The Science of Learning | Lindamood-Bell’s Approach to the Science of Reading

For Schools, Professional Development, Reading, , ,

The Science of Reading and Lindamood-Bell

The Science of Learning

Lindamood-Bell goes beyond the Science of Reading by incorporating the Cognitive Science of Learning, embracing the brain-based codes of learning beyond written language. Our approach emphasizes sensory-cognitive skills—symbol imagery (orthographic processing) and concept imagery (mental representations)—essential for decoding, fluency, and oral and written language comprehension. Though overlooked in the Science of Reading, these skills are crucial for developing lifelong learners, not just readers.

Since 1986, Lindamood-Bell has led evidence-based instruction for early literacy, struggling readers, and students with learning challenges such as dyslexia, dyscalculia, and memory and language comprehension deficits, including autism. While some of our methods align with the Science of Reading, our unique focus on sensory-cognitive skills provides a crucial foundation for improving reading fluency and comprehension.

 

Enhancing the Science of Reading: Exploring the Science of Learning and Sensory-Cognitive Functions

The Science of Learning methods

The “Science of Reading” (SoR) has been adopted by most reading programs and is legislated in the majority of states. Although ongoing literacy reform initiatives, using the SoR as the basis for improving reading, encompass some fundamental findings of peer-reviewed research, they are inadequate for what is necessary to learn how to read, particularly for those who struggle the most with reading. Current research in the cognitive sciences offers a more robust evidence-based science, including a new theoretical model that includes reading, and literacy, within the larger framework of learning.

 

The Cognitive Science of Learning

 

While learning to decode entails integrating auditory (phonological), visual (orthographic), and language (linguistic) modalities, there is a more comprehensive set of cognitive processes using mental representations/multi-sensory imagery that is foundational for decoding, oral and written language comprehension, working memory, long-term memory, and metacognition. These additional processes are grounded in a second mental representational code, beyond just language, in the brain necessary for all learning, called Dual Coding Theory (DCT) (Paivio, 1971; Bell et al., 2003; McCallum et al., 2006; Kosslyn, 1994; Sadoski et al., 2012).

Lindamood-Bell’s approach to literacy instruction is based on a Cognitive Science of Learning, including the reading brain and its more formative sensory-cognitive processes. Recognizing that reading is based on utilizing the sensory codes in the brain necessary to learn has led to a deeper understanding of what it takes to learn to read. Learning to read is a crucial cognitive activity, and any reading approach must align with a theory of cognition (Sadoski & Willson, 2006). The SoR is based on the teaching or stimulation of a singular code, language, predominantly the teaching of phonics—learning to decode and encode. While teaching reading through stimulation of the component parts of language is necessary, it is not sufficient based on a large corpus of research in cognitive science. 

For proficient reading, these imaginal sensory-cognitive factors (Bell, 1991; Lindamood et al., 1997) underlie reading skills (e.g., letter-sound knowledge, phonics, orthography, fluency, vocabulary, comprehension). One crucial sensory-cognitive factor in the language code is phonological awareness, acknowledged as a fundamental skill for reading (National Reading Panel, 2000), largely due to the pioneering work in phonemic awareness instruction by Pat Lindamood, a co-founder of Lindamood-Bell.

Symbol imagery and concept imagery are two additional critical sensory-cognitive factors related to imagery, which significantly impact language, literacy, and learning abilities (Bell, 2007; Bell, 2013). Despite their importance, these factors are often crucially overlooked or assumed in instructional approaches for struggling readers. The significance of imagery in literacy skills, for both decoding and comprehension, is supported by the well-established DCT in general cognition (Sadoski et al., 2012; Sadoski & Krasny, 2018), which has implications for mental representations, memory, and metacognition.

While phonological awareness and phonics are essential, they alone are insufficient. Sensory-cognitive skills like symbol imagery and concept imagery should be addressed to help poor readers maximize their learning potential in reading. These skills should be explicitly developed in emerging readers (K-2) to establish strong reading foundations and reduce the likelihood of future reading difficulties. Extensive research supports this approach to literacy instruction.

 

How Sensory-Cognitive Instruction Expands on the Science of Reading

 

1. Comprehension: The SoR emphasizes the Simple View of Reading (Gough & Tunmer, 1986), focusing on word reading (decoding) and language skills linked to reading comprehension. However, many students struggle with separate comprehension/sensory-cognitive weaknesses despite adequate decoding and oral language skills (Duke & Cartwright, 2021). The Visualizing and Verbalizing® program addresses these weaknesses by developing processes like concept imagery, the mental representational code crucial for comprehension.

2. Orthographic and phonological processing: The SoR, often seen as a structured literacy approach, heavily emphasizes early decoding skills but underestimates the orthographic processing (symbol imagery) necessary for automatic word recognition and fluency. For comprehensive reading skills, the Seeing Stars® program focuses on developing symbol imagery as the foundation for phonological and orthographic processing, leading to reading automaticity.

3. Dyslexia: Many students with dyslexia struggle despite explicit instruction in phonemic awareness and phonics principles. While they may excel in sound discrimination and phonics rules, they often struggle with fluent reading, affecting comprehension. Sensory-cognitive instruction fills this gap, aiding struggling students in overcoming reading difficulties.

4. Intensive intervention: Most intervention models are not intensive enough and include unnecessary linguistic strategies and routines, often inefficient in accelerating reading skills. Our approach prioritizes intensity and focuses on sensory-cognitive skills to address the root cause(s) of poor reading, enhancing processing rates and bridging the reading gap.

Cascade for Reading

5. Cascade for Reading (Figure 1): The cascade model illustrates the interconnected parts of reading. Our approach explicitly and systematically develops sensory-cognitive processes and reading components tailored to individual student needs. Consciously integrating sensory input like imagery/mental representations distinguishes this approach, facilitating skill transfer and independence in reading.

 

Nanci Bell (2013), literacy expert, author, and co-founder of Lindamood-Bell, noted, “The complex skill of reading requires the integration and interplay of several component subskills of reading. It also requires an automatic, nearly unconscious performance of those subskills that is enabled by the activation of mental representations (imagery) at a conscious level. Bringing imagery to consciousness with explicit instructional methodology will profoundly improve literacy skills” (Bell, 2013, p. 49). 

 

Beyond the Science of Reading: The Cognitive Science of Learning and Dual Coding Theory

 

The limitations of the “Science of Reading” approach are evident, particularly in its narrow focus on decoding and language skills, overlooking crucial sensory-cognitive factors essential for comprehensive literacy development. The Cognitive Science of Learning, DCT, emphasizes the integration of sensory modalities and cognitive processes necessary for proficient reading. Sensory-cognitive factors such as phonological awareness, symbol imagery, and concept imagery play a pivotal role in literacy instruction, addressing the needs of struggling readers and creating a strong foundation for reading.

Nanci Bell’s insights underscore the significance of bringing imagery to consciousness through explicit instructional methodologies, leading to profound improvements in literacy skills. By expanding beyond the SoR and embracing DCT through the stimulation of sensory-cognitive functions, educators can better equip students with the essential skills for successful reading and comprehension.

Through targeted interventions like the Visualizing and Verbalizing® program and Seeing Stars® program, students can develop the necessary sensory-cognitive skills alongside traditional reading components, creating a holistic approach to literacy instruction. This comprehensive framework not only addresses the diverse needs of learners but also promotes lifelong literacy success.

Integrating a Cognitive Science of Learning that explicitly addresses Sensorimotor functions into literacy instruction marks a significant advancement in enhancing reading abilities. It paves the way for more inclusive and effective educational practices that promote literacy for all learners.

 

Resources for Educators

Science of Learning resources

At Lindamood-Bell, we offer professional development workshops in our approach, which is based on the cognitive science of learning and aligns with the Science of Reading and structured literacy. It is unique in its focus on the sensory-cognitive skill of imagery, often a critical missing component for struggling readers, as a basis for reading fluency and language comprehension. Educators may learn the steps of the programs authored by Lindamood-Bell’s founders:

Reading and Spelling Programs

Seeing Stars

Symbol Imagery for Phonological and Orthographic Processing in Reading and Spelling

Lindamood Phoneme Sequencing (LiPS)

Phonemic Awareness for Reading, Spelling, and Speech

Comprehension Programs

Visualizing and Verbalizing (VV)

Concept Imagery for Language Comprehension, Thinking, and Memory

Talkies

Foundational Development in Concept Imagery, Oral Language Comprehension, and Expression

 

A Teacher’s Perspective

Special Educator Sonya Bledsoe describes her experience using the Seeing Stars program with her students:

 

Explore our schedule of online professional development workshops or click here to schedule a brief consultation with a program expert.

We look forward to helping you provide evidence-based instruction that will help your students reach their full potential.

 

 

References

Bell, N. (1991). Gestalt imagery: A critical factor in language comprehension. Annals of Dyslexia, 41(1), 246–260. doi:10.1007/BF02648089

Bell, N. (2007). Visualizing and Verbalizing for Language Comprehension and Thinking (2nd edition) Gander Publishing.

Bell, N. (2013). Seeing Stars: Symbol Imagery for Phonological and Orthographic Processing in Reading and Spelling (2nd edition). Gander Publishing.

Bell, S. M., McCallum, R. S., & Cox, E. A. (2003). Toward a research-based assessment of dyslexia: using cognitive measures to identify reading disabilities. Journal of learning disabilities, 36(6), 505–516. https://doi.org/10.1177/00222194030360060201   

Duke, N.K., & Cartwright, K.B. (2021). The Science of Reading Progresses: Communicating Advances Beyond the Simple View of Reading. Reading Research Quarterly, 56 (S1) pp. S25 -S44.  

Gough, P. B., & Tunmer, W. E. (1986). Decoding, Reading, and Reading Disability. Remedial and Special Education, 7(1), 6–10. https://doi.org/10.1177/074193258600700104  

Kosslyn, S.M. (1994). Image and brain: The resolution of the imagery debate. The MIT Press. 

Lindamood, P. C., Bell, N., & Lindamood, P. D. (1997). Sensory-cognitive factors in the controversy over reading instruction. Journal of Developmental and Learning Disorders 1(1), 143-182. Retrieved from http://www.icdl.com/bookstore/icdl-publications/journal-of-development-and-learning

McCallum, R. S., Bell, S. M., Wood, M. S., Below, J. L., Choate, S. M., & McCane, S. J. (2006). What is the role of working memory in reading relative to the big three processing variables (orthography, phonology, and rapid naming)? Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 24(3), 243–259. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734282906287938 . 

National Reading Panel (US), National Institute of Child Health & Human Development (US). (2000). Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction: Reports of the subgroups. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health. https://www.nichd.nih.gov/sites/default/files/publications/pubs/nrp/Documents/report.pdf  

Paivio, A. (1971). Imagery and verbal processes. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.

Sadoski, M., & Krasny, K. A. (2018). Dual coding theory: An embodied theory of literacy. In D.E. Alvermann, N.J. Unrau, M. Sailors, & R.B. Ruddell (Eds.), Theoretical Models and Processes of Literacy (7th ed., pp. 161-177). Routledge.  

Sadoski, M., McTigue, E. M., & Paivio, A. (2012). A dual coding theoretical model of decoding in reading: Subsuming the Laberge and Samuels model. Reading Psychology, 33(5), 465-496. https://doi.org/10.1080/02702711.2011.557330  

Sadoski, M., & Willson, V. L. (2006). Effects of a Theoretically Based Large-Scale Reading Intervention in a Multicultural Urban School District. American Educational Research Journal, 43(1), 137-154. https://doi.org/10.3102/00028312043001137 

Scarborough, H. S. (2001). Connecting early language and literacy to later reading (dis)abilities: Evidence, theory, and practice. In S. Neuman & D. Dickinson (Eds.), Handbook for Research in Early Literacy. Guilford Press.